Learning to Negotiate. Home Health Care Management Practice
John R. Pratt

No Abstract available

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Negotiation: An Introduction to Some Issues and Themes
Jeffrey Z Rubin

Abstract

Social scientists have begun to understand when negotiation is likely to facilitate the settlement of disputes and when it is instead apt to render a bad situation even worse. Based on a growing body of psychological research, it is possible to identify several major themes and issues that bear upon effective negotiation.

Stereotype Reactance at the Bargaining Table: The Effect of Stereotype Activation and Power on Claiming and Creating Value
Kray, Laura J., Reb, Jochen, Galinsky, Adam D., and Thompson, Leigh

Abstract

Two experiments explored the hypothesis that the impact of activating gender stereotypes on negotiated agreements in mixed-gender negotiations depends on the manner in which the stereo-type is activated (explicitly vs. implicitly) and the content of the stereotype (linking negotiation performance to stereotypically male vs. stereotypically female traits). Specifically, two experiments investigated the generality and limits of stereotype reactance. The results of Experiment 1 suggest that negotiated outcomes become more one-sided in favor of the high power negotiator when masculine traits are explicitly linked to negotiator effectiveness. In contrast, the results of Experiment 2 suggest that negotiated outcomes are more integrative (win-win) when feminine traits are explicitly linked to negotiator effectiveness. In total, performance in mixed-gender negotiations is strongly affected by the cognitions and motivations that negotiators bring to the bargaining table.

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The Foundations of Successful Strategy Implementation: Overcoming the Obstacles
Shah, A.M.

Abstract

While organizations understand the need for strategy and its effective implementation, in most of the organizations implementation often falls short of the goals that the enterprise has set itself. This is because their implementation process often falls victim to a number of formidable obstacles. Keeping this in view, this article attempts to identify obstacles to strategy implementation and focuses on spelling out the factors which help in promoting successful strategy implementation. Based on the data collected from 104 managers of a cross-section of organizations, the study identified 11 obstacles most frequently experienced by companies during implementation of their strategies. In order to remove these obstacles and promote successful strategy implementation, organizations should focus on developing sound strategy, allocate sufficient resources to it, ensure management commitment and leadership, manage employee understanding and commitment, connect financial rewards with performance and establish effective information systems. Companies which are able to address these areas will prevent various implementation problems from occurring and promote success.

When yielding pieces of the pie is not a piece of cake: Identity-based intergroup effects in negotiations
Trotshel, Roman, Huffmeier, and Loshelder, David D.

Abstract

The present research intends to shed light on an identity-based intergroup effect in negotiations by demonstrating that the mere perception of the negotiation as an instance of intergroup interaction suffices to impair the negotiation process and to deteriorate its outcomes. It was predicted that negotiators’ salient group identities increase their competitive perceptions, reduce their concession behavior, and consequently lead to inferior negotiation outcomes. Study 1 revealed that solo negotiators with salient group identities achieved lower joint outcomes than negotiators with salient individual identities. Study 2 systematically explored the underlying mechanisms of this identity-based intergroup effect by analyzing negotiators’ concession-making behaviors over the course of the negotiation. The results of the second experiment replicate the findings of the first study and further show that the detrimental effect of an identity-based intergroup context will occur in distributive as well as integrative negotiations. The findings of the present research are discussed with respect to their contribution to future research on intergroup negotiation.

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The Effects of Interaction Goals on Negotiation Tactics and Outcomes: A Dyad-Level Analysis Across Two Cultures
Liu, Meina and Wilson, Steven R.

Abstract

This study investigates how negotiators’ interaction goals influence their own and their counterparts’ negotiation tactics and outcomes across two cultures using a simulated employment contract negotiation. Results show that when negotiators placed greater importance on competitive goals, they used more distributive persuasion and fewer priority information exchange tactics, which reduced their counterparts’ profit; negotiators’ competitive goals also caused their counterparts to use fewer priority information exchange tactics, which in turn hurt their own profit. Dyad members’ competitive goals have an indirect, negative impact on joint profit. In addition, Chinese negotiators placed greater importance on competitive goals and used more distributive and fewer integrative tactics than Americans, but the associations between goals and tactics did not differ across cultures. Nevertheless, members of the two cultures took different paths to improve joint profit; as a result, Chinese dyads achieved no less joint profit than American dyads. The study sheds light on culture’s effect on the interactive processes by which goals impact negotiation performance.

Overcoming the risks of restructuring through the integrative bargaining process: Two case studies in a French context. Garaudel, Pierre, Noel, Florent and Schmidt, Geraldine

Abstract

In this article we analyse two French restructuring cases, using Walton and McKersie's theoretical framework, and provide evidence of the potential of integrative bargaining in restructuring. We argue that any restructuring situation, even in an unfavourable context such as the French, displays an integrative potential, in that employers' and employees' risks are closely interrelated and these risks can be successfully addressed in a cooperative way. The two cases are from widely contrasting contexts: a medium-sized firm in the declining textile industry, and a large insurance company with no short-term economic threat. We show to what extent the underlying bargaining processes are illustrative of an integrative approach as defined by Walton and McKersie and that such an approach may prevail in different kinds of situation, decline-related as well as competition-enhancing restructurings. Moreover, in reference with the four sub-processes developed in the Walton and MacKersie's model, we analyse how and under which conditions, an integrative approach can be achieved. Finally, we discuss theoretical implications concerning the application of this model to restructuring processes.

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Modeling Distributive and Integrative Negotiations
Bartos, Otomar J.

Abstract

Two main types of negotiation processes can be distinguished, distributive and integrative. While the distributive process consists primarily of concession making, the integrative process involves both concession making and a search for mutually profitable alternatives. Thus the meaning of “flexibility” is not always the same: in distributive negotiations, it means “readiness to make concessions”; in the integrative negotiations setting, it means in addition “readiness to engage in the search process.” Computer simulations suggest that the distributive process is faster but that the integrative process is potentially more productive in that it can increase the chances of an agreement. In order for integrative negotiation to fulfill its potential, however, the search engaged in must be joint, and during the search, the adversaries must interact face to face. Distributive negotiation can also be made more productive by having the adversaries interact face to face, under conditions that emphasize their similarities.

Disentangling approaches to framing in conflict and negotiation research: A meta-paradigmatic perspective
Dewulf, Art, Gray, Barbara, Putnam, Linda, Lewicki, Roy, Aarts, Noelle, Bouwen, Rene, and van Woerkum, Cees

Abstract

Divergent theoretical approaches to the construct of framing have resulted in conceptual confusion in conflict research. We disentangle these approaches by analyzing their assumptions about 1) the nature of frames — that is, cognitive representations or interactional co-constructions, and 2) what is getting framed — that is, issues, identities and relationships, or interaction process. Using a meta-paradigmatic perspective, we delineate the ontological, theoretical and methodological assumptions among six approaches to framing to reduce conceptual confusion and identify research opportunities within and across these approaches.

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Strategic Decision-Making Processes: Beyond the Efficiency-Consensus Trade-Off
Roberto, Michael A

Abstract

This study examines how managers make strategic decisions efficiently and simultaneously build the consensus often required to implement decisions successfully. The findings suggest that groups employed two critical processes—one substantive/cognitive and the other symbolic/ political—to achieve high levels of efficiency and consensus. On the substantive dimension, they gradually structured complex problems by making a series of intermediate choices about particular elements of the decision. On the symbolic dimension, they took steps to preserve the legitimacy of the decision-making process.

Neu, Joyce Conversation Structure: An Explanation of Bargaining Behaviors in Negotiations
Neu, Joyce

Abstract

Studies of bargaining behaviors have drawn largely on a content analysis approach to describe the messages conveyed during negotiations. This article examines this approach to bargaining behaviors and suggests that content analysis cannot account for important aspects of bargaining behavior. Conversation structure provides essential information in the analysis of bargaining behaviors. A total of 30 buyer-seller negotiations were taped, transcribed, and coded, and an exploratory factor analysis was run on the data. The results of the factor analysis suggest that the use of conversation structure to interpret communication in negotiations yields important information inaccessible through content analysis alone.

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The Pros and Cons of Dyadic Side Conversations in Small Groups: The Impact of Group Norms and Task Type
Swaab, Roderick I., Phillips, Katherine W., Diermeier, Daniel, and Medvec, Victoria Husted

Abstract

This research explores the impact of dyadic side conversations on group norms within three- and four-person groups. The authors propose a link between dyadic communication and group norms such that the absence of dyadic communication enhances a norm of group unity, whereas its presence enhances a norm of faction-forming. In two studies, we demonstrate that the presence of dyadic communication opportunities can both help and hurt group performance and that this depends on a fit between the content of the norm and the wider social context. In negotiation tasks that benefit from group unity, the absence of dyadic communication results in a stronger focus on the group and its future as well as increased group performance. However, in problem-solving tasks that benefit from faction-forming, the mere presence of dyadic communication opportunities leads to increased openness to unique information, disagreement, and group performance.

Psychological Similarity in Work-Based Relationships and the Development of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Jaina, Joe and Tyson, Shaun

Abstract

The subject of work-based relationships as a source of support, feedback and development has centrality in much of the research into management development. Specifically, work dealing with manager/subordinate and peer relationships, as well as more formally defined developmental relationships such as that of the mentor, coach or counsellor, are of interest to the management researcher. This article examines the concept of psychological similarity through shared meanings, in relation to the maintenance and development of self-efficacy beliefs. This examination is carried out through comparative case studies in two very different organizational settings; the corporate and the not-for-profit sector. It was found that in work-based relationships in which the parties are psychologically similar, such relationships are more likely to support the maintenance and development of self-efficacy beliefs.

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Maoz, Ifat, Vaniv, Ilan and Ivri, Naama Decision Framing and Support for Concessions in the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict   Maoz, Ifat, Vaniv, Ilan and Ivri, Naama

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to explore, in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the influence of framing a decision task as inclusion or exclusion on Israeli Jewish respondents’ support for the concession of Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza. Respondents received a list of 40 Jewish settlements. Details such as the number of residents and geographical location were provided for each settlement. The respondents were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the inclusion condition, 55 respondents were asked to mark the settlements for which they recommended that Israeli sovereignty be conceded. In the exclusion condition, 53 respondents were asked to mark the settlements for which they recommended that Israeli sovereignty not be conceded. The findings confirm the predictions tested and indicate that: (1) Framing the task in terms of inclusion or exclusion affects respondents’ support for territorial compromise, so that respondents in the exclusion condition support the concession of more settlements than respondents in the inclusion condition. (2) Framing the task in terms of inclusion or exclusion has a greater effect on support for conceding options (settlements) that are perceived as ambiguous (less consensual in the climate of opinion) in comparison to options (settlements) that are perceived as more clearcut (more consensual). The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Using Power to Influence Outcomes: Does Gender Matter?
Shapiro, Mary, Ingols, Cynthia, and Blake-Beard, Stacy 

Abstract

The conventional definitions of power and masculinity are tightly conflated. The same words that are often used to describe power, such as authority, control, and decisiveness, are also often used to define masculinity. Where does that leave women in building and using power? Even as feminist scholars attempt to decouple the definition of power from masculinity by expanding power paradigms, cultural norms in the Unites States are still such that there is an expectation of women to be collaborative and self-sacrificing. As a result, many women are reluctant to use “masculine” power, or when they do, they are faced with the double bind: Be powerful but unfeminine. This exercise allows both female and male students to explore their personal relationship with power and how they build and use power to influence outcomes. The exercise fosters a rich discussion about cultural definitions and expectations on power and the double binds they create for both men and women.

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Gender, Perceived Competence, and Power Displays: Examining Verbal Interruptions in a Group Context
Karakowsky, Leonard, McBey, Kenneth, and Miller, Diane L.

Abstract

This study examined sources of influence on power displays in mixed-gender work groups. The participants for this study included 216 university students who were randomly assigned to 36 mixed-gender groups for the purpose of case discussions. Measures of individual verbal interruption behavior were used as indicators of power displays among group members. The findings support the assertion that the proportional representation of men and women in a group will influence patterns of interruption behavior, with both men and women exhibiting higher levels of interruption behavior in male-dominated groups. In addition, the results indicate that perceived member competence based on congruence or incongruence with the gender orientation of the group’s task has a greater impact on power displays among women compared to men. The use of such power displays was also shown to be negatively correlated with leadership rankings in the group for both men and women.

Malhotra, Deepak and Bazerman, Max H. Psychological Influence in Negotiation: An Introduction Long Overdue
Malhotra, Deepak and Bazerman, Max H

Abstract

This article begins with an analysis of the limited extent to which social influence research has penetrated the field of negotiation. The authors argue that one barrier has been that research on social influence focuses almost exclusively on economic or structural levers of influence. With this background, the article seeks to do the following: (a) define the domain of psychological influence as consisting of tactics that do not require the influencer to change the economic or structural aspects of the bargaining situation, (b) review prior decision research to identify ideas that may be relevant to psychological influence, (c) provide numerous examples of how decision research can be leveraged to create psychological influence tactics for negotiators, (d) consider how targets of influence might defend against the tactics herein considered, and (e) consider some of the ethical issues surrounding the use of psychological influence in negotiation.

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Nurses’ Perceptions of Powerlessness in Influencing Ethical Decisions. Erlen, Judith A. and Frost Beth

No Abstract available

The Language of Coalition Formation in Online Multiparty Negotiations
Huffaker, David, Swaab, Roderick, and Diermeier

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine how language affects coalition formation in multiparty negotiations. The authors relied on communication accommodation theory for theoretical framing and hypothesized that language can help coalition partners reach an agreement when it is used to increase a sense of unity. Findings of an experimental study support this hypothesis, demonstrating that greater linguistic convergence and assent increase agreements between potential coalition partners whereas the expression of negative emotion words decrease agreement. The implications for coalition formation and the study of language in negotiations are discussed.

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Are Individualistic Orientations Collectively Valuable in Group Negotiations?
Schei, Vidar, Rognes, Jorn K., and DeDreu, Carsten K. W.

Abstract

This experiment examines how members’ individualistic or cooperative motivational orientations affect the processes and outcomes of negotiating groups. A total of 228 students participated in a three-person negotiation simulation where motivational orientations were induced through written instructions and members were aware of each other’s orientations. Results showed that groups with only cooperative members were more satisfied with their negotiations than were groups with other member compositions. Conversely, groups with only individualistic members achieved higher joint gains than did groups with other member compositions. Process analyses indicated that individualistic groups increased their integrative activities and decreased their distributive activities toward the end of their negotiations. Our results challenge the dominant view that individualistic orientations are detrimental for group processes and outcomes.

The Female Professional: Perceived Communication Proficiencies as Predictors of Organizational Advancement
Shockley-Zalabak, Pamela, Staley, Constance Courtney, and Morley, Donald

Abstract

This study investigated self and supervisory perceptions of female employees’ communication proficiency, as predictors of organizational effectiveness and promotability. Both self and supervisory evaluations of 15 communication skills were utilized as predictors of female achievement levels in two stepwise multiple regression equations. Results indicated that supervisor evaluation of seven communication competencies accounted for 55% of the variance in promotions while self-evaluations of these competencies accounted for a nonsignificant 14% of the variance in promotions. The most powerful finding of this research is the importance of perceived communication competencies for organizational achievement.

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It May Not Be What You Think: Gender Differences In Predicting Emotional and Social Competence
Taylor, Scott N. and Hood, Jacqueline N.

Abstract

Women and men leaders have been noted to be similar in terms of emotional and social competence in the workforce. We analyzed gender differences in self-ratings, others’ ratings, and predicted ratings of men and women leaders on a multi-source feedback assessment of emotional and social competence. Findings revealed that there were significant differences between how leaders were rated on emotional and social competence versus how they predicted they would be rated. Furthermore, results indicated that when asked to predict how they were rated by their managers, direct reports, and peers, women were significantly poorer at predicting others’ ratings compared with men. However, women self-rated their demonstration of emotional and social competence similar to men. Age was investigated, but not found to have an effect on men and women’s predictions of others’ ratings. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings and areas for future research.

Aikido Practices, Communication Awareness and Effective Entrepreneurship
Rudisill, Kay C.

Abstract

Founded on Eastern wisdom traditions, the martial art of Aikido focuses on moral and spiritual development through psycho-physiological harmonization of the mind, body and spirit. The purpose of this article is to explain the effects of Aikido practices on enhancing communication and mindfulness in entrepreneurial contexts. In addition, the article introduces research on Aikido aimed at enhancing cross-organizational and cross-cultural exchanges where unmediated, proxemic interpersonal interactions are supplanted by virtual (synchronous and asynchronous) communications media, such as e-mail and voice mail.

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Under What Conditions Do People Feel Face-Loss? Effects of the Presence of Others and Social Roles on the Perception of Losing Face in Japanese Culture
 Lin, Chun-Chi and Yamaguchi, Susumu

Abstract

Although face plays an important role in our daily interpersonal interactions, little is known about how people perceive face-loss. An open-ended survey revealed that the need to protect face consists of two factors: the presence of others and social role involvement (Study 1). In a follow-up scenario experiment, it was found that participants perceived protagonists as losing face most when the protagonists failed to fulfill a social role in the presence of others. The effect of failure in a social role on perceived face-loss was mediated by role expectations (Study 2). The involvement of one’s social role in public situations triggers a sense of face-loss in Japanese culture. Future research is encouraged to explore the generalizability of these results in cross-cultural contexts.

Reframing practices in moral conflict: interaction problems in the negotiation standoff at Waco
Agne, Robert R.

Abstract

This study is an analysis of several telephone conversations between FBI negotiators and David Koresh during the 51-day FBI—Branch Davidian standoff outside Waco, Texas, in 1993. The analysis shows how different reframing practices reveal interactional troubles the negotiators faced in dealing with the incompatibility of their legal frame for the situation and the Davidians' religious one. These practices shed new light on reframing in crisis negotiation steeped in moral conflict, describing it as a problematic conversational practice rather than a prescribed path to resolution.

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Persuasive Arguments and Beating Around the Bush in Negotiations
Harinck, Fieke

Abstract

Individuals in negotiations often do not talk about their reasons to aim for a certain outcome and design their arguments in such a way that their reasons are unclear to the other party. Three experiments examined the occurrence and the underlying motive for this ‘beating around the bush’ as a function of the conflict issue—conflicting interests, conflicting ideas about intellective problems or conflicting ideas about evaluative problems. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that beating around the bush occurred more frequently in (a specific instance of) conflict of interest than in intellective or evaluative conflict. Experiment 3 suggests that providing arguments for one’s position in terms of self-interest is considered honest but not very smart or strategic.

Overcoming the competitiveness of an intergroup context: Third-party intervention in intergroup negotiations
Loschelder, David D. and Trotshel, Roman

Abstract

The present research addresses the specific impairments of an intergroup negotiation context with respect to intergroup competitiveness and partial impasses. We examined whether mediation-arbitration (med-arb), a hybrid form of third-party intervention, is conducive to overcoming the detrimental effect of an intergroup negotiation context. Study 1 demonstrated the detrimental effect of an intergroup negotiation context and showed that mediation-arbitration is an effective means to overcome this detrimental effect in a distributive negotiation task. The findings of Study 1 further suggest that the beneficial effect of med-arb on negotiation outcomes can be explained in terms of an alleviation of intergroup competitiveness. Study 2 replicated the beneficial effect of mediation-arbitration in an integrative intergroup negotiation and, by means of comparing mediation-arbitration to straight mediation, corroborated the notion that the anticipated arbitration in med-arb is a necessary precondition to alleviate the competitiveness throughout the mediated negotiation process. Study 2 further revealed that the beneficial effect of med-arb on intergroup competitiveness can be explained in terms of the perceived decision control that disputants ascribed to the third party. The findings of the present research are discussed with respect to their contribution to future research on intergroup negotiation and third-party intervention.

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Mediation: A Current Review and Theory Development
Wall, Jr., James A., Stark, John B., and Standifer, Rhetta L.

Abstract

The mediation literature of the past decade is organized into six topical areas: the determinants of mediation, mediation per se, approaches employed by mediators, determinants of the mediation approaches, outcomes of mediation, and determinants of the mediation outcomes. The literature that describes mediation per se, mediation approaches, and outcomes is very descriptive rather than theoretical. The literature that deals with the determinants of the mediation, approaches, and outcomes is quite descriptive but also provides an ample base for theory development.