| Learning from Journal Articles Introduction Criminology is a multidisciplinary field of study that requires experts and members of society to grasp the relationships between an overarching American justice system and the criminal justice system and the general community. Those who study criminology and criminal behavior must American society is perennially challenged by the problems of crime and victimization. These problems are not new and have historically posed very serious policy and human challenges for national and local governments and members of the community. Unfortunately, these are problems that have not been sufficiently solved and which continue to be present throughout the nation. Crime and victimization are found in every region and every city, and they exist across every social class and every demographic group. There are no ideal community models or family profiles that guarantee immunity from the possibility of being touched by criminal behavior or victimization. The purpose of this online resource is to stimulate critical discussion about the attributes and idiosyncrasies of criminology and the criminal justice system. This resource is organized into thematic parts which correspond to the textbook's chapters. Some articles offer provocative arguments based on community-based social issues, other articles discuss the meaning of information collected from various investigations, and others report the policy implications of uncovered information. All of the articles have been selected from reputable scholarly journals. Critical Thinking Questions As you're reading each of these articles, keep in mind the questions posed below. They will help both to focus your attention and to analyze the issues presented.
Chapter 1: Criminology, Crime, and Criminal Law Sage Full Text Collections and Criminology/Criminal Justice Home Page Chapter 1: Criminology, Crime, and Criminal Law Janis Appier. Everywhere Americans turned in the early 1930s, they heard alarming reports about the "crime wave" sweeping the country. Much of the blame for the crisis fell on teenage boys. In response, civic leaders in hundreds of U.S. cities formed crime prevention groups that sought to slash the rate of juvenile delinquency. The Los Angeles Coordinating Councils (LACC), the largest and best-known of these groups, pioneered the community approach to crime control, which entailed extensive experiments in social engineering. Because it championed social work and environmental explanations of criminal behavior, the community approach differed sharply from the contemporaneous federal "war on crime." James Rotton and Ellen G. Cohn. Two archival analyses were performed to examine the association between annual temperatures and U.S. crime rates. The first was based on area-averaged temperatures in the United States as a whole for the years 1950 through 1999. The second analysis was based on state-centered crime rates from 1960 through 1998. Contrary to the general aggression model, cross-sectional time-series analyses indicated that annual temperatures were associated with rates for assault, rape, robbery, burglary, and larceny, but not murder or motor vehicle theft. "The Lifers Public Safety Steering Committee of the State Correctional Institution Ending the Culture of Street Crime." This article explores the problem of crime and violence, offering a new way to look at what motivates certain individuals who habitually engage in criminal activity. Explaining the concept of the existence of a pervasive culture of crime is the primary focus of this article. It also seeks to provide a multidirectional strategy for ending that culture, which includes the utilization of former members of the culture as part of the solution. Chapter 2: Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior Jerome Cartier, David Farabee, and Michael L. Prendergast. This study uses data from 641 state prison parolees in California to examine the associations between methamphetamine use and three measures of criminal behavior: (a) self-reported violent criminal behavior, (b) return to prison for a violent offense, and (c) return to prison for any reason during the first 12 months of parole. Jennifer E. Vitale, Stevens S. Smith, Chad A. Brinkley, and Joseph P. Newman. The reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) was examined in a sample of 528 nonpsychotic female offenders participating in a study assessing the generalizability of the instrument to females using personality, attitudinal, and laboratory behavioral measures. Results showed good interrater reliability and adequate internal consistency. Chapter 3: The Early Schools of Criminology and Modern Counterparts Willem de Haan and Jaco M C Vos. The rational choice perspective explains all forms of crime by viewing offenders as reasoning criminals. In this article, we take this approach to task by trying out its heuristic potential. More specifically, we look at how well it works for one special type of crime, i.e. street robbery. On the basis of a detailed analysis of offender accounts we argue that rational choice theory fails adequately to conceptualize some of the essential aspects of this form of criminal behaviour: impulsiveness, expressivity, moral ambiguity and shame. Uri Timor. From interviews with prisoners and ex-prisoners in Israel, it emerges that their delinquency was an outcome of what is called in many languages, including Hebrew,balagan (a chaotic or messy life). The balagan is caused by a lack of moral and behavioral centers, and it is characterized by confusing and contradictory norms of criminal and noncriminal behavior. This conclusion is inconsistent with theories that explain criminality in terms of cultural perspective, but it fits the center theory and the theories of social control. The balagan was mainly expressed by contradictions between their attitudes and behavior, as well as between their positive images and criminal acts. James D. Unnever, Francis T. Cullen, and Robert Agnew. This article tests two rival theories: low self-control and differential association and social learning and their competing accounts of why bad parenting matters. The analysis revealed that several dimensions of parenting (including monitoring and caring and parental reinforcement of aggression) affected both low self-control and aggressive attitudes. Both low self-control and aggressive attitudes predicted delinquent involvement and were found to partially mediate the effect of parenting measures on delinquency. The influence of self-control on delinquent involvement was found to vary across levels of aggressive attitudes—adolescents who had aggressive attitudes and little self-control were especially likely to engage in criminal behavior. Chapter 4: Social Structural Theories Kristin E. Voelkl, John W. Welte, and William F. Wieczorek. Adolescent delinquency may be a likely consequence of negative school experiences, including poor academic performance, low class attendance, and dropping out. Given disparate experiences that African American and White students often encounter in school, this investigation examined the link between delinquency and school behaviors separately for White and African American males at risk for delinquency. In addition, it asked whether school experiences are equally related to both minor and more severe forms of criminal behavior. Colin Webster, Robert MacDonald, and Mark Simpson. Using qualitative biographical data from a longitudinal study of youth transitions, criminal careers and desistance, this paper casts doubt on the veracity and predictive power of risk assessment devices such as Asset and OASys. These devices, and the research on which they are based, suggest that earlier and current childhood and teenage influences trigger and sustain later re-offending. In contrast, we argue that focus must be shifted to contingent risk factors that accrue in late teenage and young adulthood. Secondly, risk assessment and criminal career research has ignored the influence that unforeseen and unforeseeable processes of neighbourhood destabilization and life events have in criminal careers and their cessation. James D. Unnever, Mark Colvin, and Francis T. Cullen. In his recent Crime and Coercion, Colvin contends that individuals exposed to coercive environments develop social-psychological deficits that enhance their probability of engaging in criminal behavior. Using a sample of 2,472 students from six middle schools, the authors test core propositions of Colvin's differential coercion theory. Thus, they assess whether delinquent involvement is related to four coercive environments: parental coercion, peer coercion, a coercive school environment, and a coercive neighborhood environment. Barbara J. Nowak. In a nation where more than 85% of its population of 255,000 is of African descent, the recently formed Commonwealth of the Bahamas struggles to establish its cultural identity, political power, and economic strength. After more than 300 years of British rule, the country's affluent White power brokers, known as "The Bay Street Boys," relinquished formal political control to the Black Bahamian-led Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) in 1973. Since assuming self-government, the nation seeks to maintain its place as one of the most politically stable, if not most complex, Caribbean nations in the modern world. Threatening the stability of the Bahamas is the rise in the number of violent crimes committed by its juveniles. Chapter 5: Social Process Theories Stephen W. Baron. The current research seeks to replicate Sampson and Groves's findings with data from the 1994 British Crime Survey. Analyses of similar models with similar measures yield results consistent with social disorganization theory and consistent with the results presented by Sampson and Groves. Our study suggests, therefore, that the findings of the initial classic study were not artifactual but illuminated an underlying empirical pattern that has persisted over time. Ben-Zion Cohen and Ruth Zeira. An index based on Hirschi's theory designed to measure social control in kibbutz society was applied to a random sample of 440 high school students in the kibbutzim of Northern Israel. The delinquency variable was measured by self-report on the frequency of two illegal behaviors condemned by adult kibbutz society but not excessively stigmatized by the youth: driving without a license and stealing from the kibbutz mini-market. Doris Layton MacKenzie and Spencer De Li. The monthly self-reported criminal activities, risk behaviors, and local life circumstances of offenders who began sentences of probation in northern Virginia were examined during the year prior to arrest, between arrest and probation, and during the first eight months of probation. The criminal activities and risk behaviors of the offenders declined dramatically after arrest and continued at this lower level throughout the probation period studied. When these offenders participated in highrisk behaviors such as carrying a gun, using drugs, and heavy use of alcohol, they committed more crimes; conversely, when they lived with spouses or were employed, they committed fewer crimes. Sally F. Stevenson, Guy Hall, and J. M. Innes. Cognitive developmental theory suggests that mature-level sociomoral reasoning (Stages 3 and 4) can provide a protective factor, or buffer, against antisocial and violent criminal behavior. This study explored whether the influence of internalised criminal sentiments could undermine this buffer. The sample was high-risk men and women offenders (n =99) convicted of serious violent index offences, and men and women nonoffender university students (n = 101). James E. Hawdon. Since 1969, Travis Hirschi's control theory has been one of the leading explanations of delinquency. The theory has withstood not only the test of time but also rigorous empirical investigations. Although his theory has been generally supported, Hirschi's concept of involvement has been criticized as being, at best, analytically indistinguishable from commitment and, at worst, unrelated to delinquent behavior. However, when reconceptualized as daily routine patterns, involvement is a powerful predictor of criminal activity. Chapter 6: Critical Theories: Marxist, Conflict, and Feminist Jeff Ulmer and J. William Spencer. The term 'criminal career' is treated in different ways by two distinct approaches, with differing ontological assumptions about human social behavior—a positivist approach and a pragmatist/ symbolic interactionist approach. Our major argument is that those interested in criminal careers and in stability and change in 'criminal propensity' have much to gain by attending to symbolic interactionist conceptions of careers in crime and deviance, which are based on pragmatist rather than positivist ontological assumptions. Stephen A. Cernkovich, Peggy C. Giordano, and Jennifer L. Rudolph. Although strain and social control theories assign a central role to the influence of the American dream on criminal behavior, little research has examined its impact on African Americans. Furthermore, while the criminology literature is replete with studies of the influence of aspirations and expectations on behavior, few of these have exphasized the economic goals so central to the core tenets of the American dream. In contrast, this study is based on a sample approximately half African American and measures the American dream in economic terms. Heith Copes and Andy Hochstetler. Increasingly, theorists recognize that the influence of masculinity on decision making is situationally contingent and embedded in interactions. Using interviews with ninety-four male street thieves, the authors describe the situations that bring constructions of masculinity into the foreground of street crime. In certain situations, men are likely to engage in criminal behavior as a mechanism for constructing their masculinity. K. Praveen Parboteeah, Martin Hoegl, and John B. Cullen. This research considers important social institutions (e.g., the economic system, the level of industrialization, the level of social inequality, and the degree of religiosity) as determinants of individuals' justifications to commit socially sanctioned behaviors. Using factor analyses on data from 32,734 individuals located in 27 nations, we find that regardless of country, all individuals group 23 socially sanctioned behaviors uniformly in three categories, which we term controversial behaviors (e.g., abortion), peccadilloes (e.g., keeping money found), and illegal behaviors (e.g., political assassinations). Chapter 7: Psychosocial Theories: Individual Traits and Criminal Behavior Chris L. Gibson, Alex R. Piquero, and Stephen G. Tibbetts. Several scholars have employed the risk factor prevention paradigm in identifying risk factors and protective factors that increase and decrease the odds of offending. Farrington suggested that multiplicative interactions of such factors should be explored in an attempt to understand how they are linked to differential offending behaviors such as offending prevalence and early onset of offending. The authors examine Moffitt's interactional hypothesis that states that two specific risk factors, verbal IQ and family adversity, interact to increase the probability of particular types of criminal behavior. James D. Unnever and Dewey G. Cornell. We investigated the influence of low self-control and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on bullying and bully victimization in a sample of 1,315 middle school students using a school survey. Students who reported taking medication for ADHD were at increased risk for bullying as well as victimization by bullies. The correlation between ADHD status and bullying could be explained by low self-control, a construct theorized by Gottfredson and Hirschi to be the most important determinant of criminality. Bradley R. E. Wright, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, and Ray Paternoster. Society's efforts to deter crime with punishment may be ineffective because those individuals most prone to commit crime often act impulsively, with little thought for the future, and so they may be unmoved by the threat of later punishment. Deterrence messages they receive, therefore, may fall on deaf ears. This article examines this issue by testing the relationship between criminal propensity, perceived risks and costs of punishment, and criminal behavior. Chapter 8: Biosocial Approaches Willem H. J. Martens. In this article, the author attempts to demonstrate a relationship between neurobiological dysfunctions and/or genetically determined deviant behavior and personality traits as well as moral abnormalities. Data from neuroscience show that a number of neurological dysfunctions are linked to cognitive and emotional disturbances. Cognitive and emotional abnormalities, in turn, are frequently related to moral dysfunctions. Moreover, neurological disorders can produce dramatic psychological and social problems, personality changes, and behavioral problems in patients. Lee Ellis. This article puts forward a theory that takes account of biological as well as environmental factors, and predicts that variables such as age, gender and social status will be associated with offending probabilities. It is argued that male sex hormones operating on the human brain increase the probability of competitive/victimizing behaviour. Chapter 9: Developmental Theories: From Delinquency to Crime to Desistance Xiaojia Ge, M. Brent Donnellan, and Ernst Wenk. In this study, we evaluated a model of criminal offending that included the influences of family environment, cognitive ability, and early behavior problems. Analyses were conducted on a large sample of juvenile offenders (N = 4,146) who were committed to the California Youth Authority (CYA) in 1964 and 1965, with a 20-year follow-up of arrest data. Results suggest that an adverse family environment was related to the timing and frequency of juvenile delinquency. Cognitive ability, early involvement with alcohol, early age at first arrest, and the number of early arrests were all significant predictors of chronic criminal offending after ages 21, 25, and even after age 31. The timing of first arrest was found to be one of the most important variables for the prediction of chronic criminal activity. L. Thomas Winfree, Jr., Terrance J. Taylor, Ni He, and Finn-Aage Esbensen. The authors explore the self-control levels, self-reported illegal behavior, and supporting attitudes exhibited by a panel of youths from in six cities at five points in time. Some of our findings substantiated Gottfredson and Hirschi's claims (e.g., claims linking self-control, sex, and race or ethnicity); however, other findings are at odds with their theory (e.g., the unchanging nature of self-control). The authors review the implications of these findings for self-control theory. Stephen A. Cernkovich, Peggy C. Giordano, and Jennifer L. Rudolph. This study is based on a sample approximately half African American and measures the American dream in economic terms. The findings indicate that African Americans maintain a stronger commitment to the American dream than do Whites, but the nature of its influence on behavior offers little support for social control theory among either Whites or Blacks. Chapter 10: Altered Minds and Crime: Alcohol, Drugs, and Mental Illness Toni Makkai and Jason Payne. Utilizing the self-reported offending and drug use histories of over 2000 incarcerated male prisoners from four Australian jurisdictions, offenders were categorized into different offending typologies based on lifetime criminal behaviour. Eight different crime types were developed and offenders' reported use of four drugs - cannabis, amphetamines, heroin and cocaine - was examined. The analysis found that the type and level of illicit drug use varied across the different types of offenders. Of those who had used drugs, the rates of poly-drug use were high. Furthermore, most drug using offenders, regardless of crime type, were on average more likely to commit minor offending prior to the onset of illicit drug use. The extent to which offenders attributed drug use to their criminal careers also varied. This article highlights that interventions aimed at drug use alone will have only a limited impact on reducing the likelihood of re-offending. M. Douglasm Anglin and Keiko I. Powers. This study investigated the individual and joint effects of methadone maintenance treatment and of legal supervision that included drug use testing (e.g., parole or probation) in improving the behaviors of narcotics addicts. Alyson L. Galloway and Laurie A. Drapela. Drug courts represent a significant development in criminal justice during the past 15 years, and a small but growing literature suggests they are effective in reducing drug use and criminal behavior. Most of these studies evaluate the effects of drug courts in urban areas, however. This study adds to this literature by considering the effects of this intermediate sanction among adult offenders in a small, nonmetropolitan county of northwest Washington. Matthew L. Hiller, Kevin Knight, and D. Dwayne Simpson. Early dropout or failure to engage in drug abuse treatment is a common problem in correctional settings. This study presents findings from 339 felony probationers mandated to a 6-month modified therapeutic community in lieu of imprisonment. Early dropout was related to cocaine dependence, having a history of psychiatric treatment, being unemployed before adjudication to treatment, and to higher levels of depression, anxiety, and hostility. Dropout rates also were higher for probationers with deviant peer networks and lower ratings of self-efficacy. Chapter 11: Crimes of Violence Joseph A. Kudryavtsev and Natalya A. Ratinova. The results of a Russian study of the psychological aspects of criminal homicidal aggression are presented. The authors propose a typology of homicidal aggressors based on an analysis of their criminal behavior, their psychological structure, the dysfunction of the self-control mechanism, and their differing personality characteristics. They identify the following types of aggression: functional-utilitarian; habitual noncontrolled; situational- defensive, motivated by an affective goal; and catastrophic aggression. They present the differential criteria as useful to criminal experts in their analysis of offenders, particularly in cases involving the determination of criminal responsibility. Heather M. Gretton, Michelle McBride, Robert D. Hare, Roy O'Shaughnessy, and Gary Kumka. Psychopathy, as measured by the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), has emerged as one of the most important factors in understanding and predicting adult criminal behavior, including sex offending. The authors used extensive file information to score a youth version of the PCL-R (the PCL:YV) for 220 adolescent males in an outpatient sex offender treatment program. The authors coded charges and convictions for an average of 55 months following cessation of treatment. The PCL:YV was positively and significantly related to total, violent, and nonviolent reoffense rates. Offenders with a high PCL-YV score and penile plethysmographic evidence of deviant sexual arousal prior to treatment were at very high risk for general reoffending. The results suggest that psychopathy may have much the same implications for the criminal justice system in adolescent offenders as it does in adult offenders. Beth Bjerregaard . This research examines the construct validity of gang membership by examining the relationship between various methods of operationalizing gang membership and delinquent involvement. The results demonstrate that there are important consequences to the method utilized to measure gang membership. Individuals reporting membership in organized gangs were far more likely to report that their gangs possess the characteristics typically associated with traditional street gangs. Michelle L. Meloy. Nearly 60% of convicted sex offenders serve a term of felony probation or parole. Using data for 917 convicted male sex offenders on probation in 17 states, this study examines the efficacy of community supervision for this population. Offenders' social demographics and baseline criminality were studied in conjunction with formal and informal social controls to determine their collective deterrent impact. Chapter 12: Serial, Mass, and Spree Murder Mark E. Safarik, John Jarvis, and Kathleen Nussbaum. This study aimed to investigate the possibility of establishing a model of homicide behaviors that could be used as a basis for evaluating the scientific validity of offender profiling. A sample of 247 British single offender-single victim solved homicide cases was analyzed using a nonmetric multidimensional scaling procedure known as Smallest Space Analysis. The results indicated that homicide crime scenes could most readily be differentiated in terms of the expressive and instrumental role the victim had to the offender. Carol E. Jordan, Tk Logan, Robert Walker, and Amy Nigoff. Stalking is documented, but insufficient attention has been given to case disposition and how prior criminal and protective order histories influence the processing of stalking cases by the court. This study used secondary case analyses to examine the incarceration and prior offense histories of 346 men charged with stalking, the temporal relationship between prior offenses and the stalking offense, and the interplay between criminal/protective order histories and the final disposition of stalking cases. Chapter 13: Terrorism and Terrorists Martha L. Cottam and Otwin Marenin. As a free trade area, NAFTA requires the relatively unrestricted movement of people, goods, and services across the borders between the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Although the proponents of NAFTA emphasize positive economic outcomes for the three partners, the dependence of those outcomes on open borders inevitably brings with it the prospect of greater opportunities for transnational criminal activities, generally, and for narcotrafficking, in particular. Managing the free flow of goods and people while limiting the free flow of illegal substances and criminals is the central dilemma of the war on drugs in NAFTA. Cooperation between the member states differs strikingly, with smooth cooperation along the northern border between the United States and Canada and a troubling lack of cooperation along the U.S.-Mexico border. The different patterns in cooperation among policy makers and law enforcement agencies are largely attributable to mutual perceptions and nationalism in all three countries. Brian Levin and Sara-Ellen Amster. The potential for nuclear and radiological terrorism is a concern for policy makers as the motives and methods of many modern terrorists have changed to embrace weapons of mass destruction. Because these threats likely involve malefactors who rely on a combination of preparation, cooperation, and technical data, it is important to examine how the law addresses preliminary criminal activity as well as access to potentially dangerous information. Although criminal and First Amendment legal sanctions are primarily oriented to address past activities, they do allow authorities to act prospectively in limited circumstances. These circumstances can include instances where nuclear or radiological terrorism is a possibility. John Z. Wang. Since August 1991, a new type of international criminal activity, using oceangoing ships, has appeared. Illegal Chinese immigrants are entering various countries throughout the world, including the United States. This new wave of illegal global migration has promoted several social problems in the countries and areas affected: unauthorized employment, substandard housing, political asylum schemes, and related crimes such as murder, kidnapping, ganging, and prostitution. This article will analyze some of the causal factors that lead to the situation. Chapter 14: Property and Public Order Crime Elizabeth R. Groff and Nancy G. La Vigne. The use of geographic information systems (GIS) to understand spatial patterns of crime and criminal behavior has become more prevalent in recent years, but with a few exceptions these analyses fall short of serving as predictive tools. The recent introduction of user-friendly, raster-based mapping software, designed primarily for environmental and planning purposes, offers new tools for examining and predicting crime and criminal behavior. By applying opportunity theories to the crime of residential burglary, this article examines the utility of raster-based mapping software for predicting desirable and undesirable locations of burglaries, as well as likely locations for crime displacement or diffusion. The findings reveal that the model holds promise for serving these prediction purposes. Nancy Scheper-Hughes. This article addresses some of the ethical, ethnographic and political dilemmas of an idiosyncratic multi-sited research project exploring the illegal and covert activities surrounding the traffic in humans and their body parts by outlaw surgeons, kidney hunters and transplant tourists engaged in ‘back-door' transplants in the global economy. In its odd juxtapositions of ethnography, documentation, surveillance and human rights work, the project blends genres and transgresses longstanding distinctions between anthropology, political journalism, scientific reporting, political engagement, public interest anthropology and human rights work. Ray Surette. A unique population of juveniles, serious and violent juvenile offenders (SVJOs), has emerged as a public concern. A corollary concern is the effect of the mass media on juveniles. Addressing both issues, an exploratory study of copycat crime and the media's role in copycat crime's generation among a sample of SVJOs is conducted. The study's goals are to measure the prevalence of self-reported copycat crime in SVJOs and examine the correlates of self-reported copycat criminal behaviors. Chapter 15: White-Collar and Organized Crime Glenn D. Walters and Matthew D. Geyer. Thirty-four male white-collar offenders without a prior history of non-white-collar crime, 23 male white-collar offenders with at least one prior arrest for a non-white-collar crime, and 66 male non-white-collar offenders housed in a minimum security federal prison camp completed the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles and Social Identity as a Criminal scale and were rated on the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form-Revised. Significant group differences were noted on the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles Self-Assertion/Deception scale, Social Identity as a Criminal Centrality subscale, Social Identity as a Criminal In-Group Ties subscale, and Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form-Revised, which showed that white-collar offenders with no prior history of non-white-collar crime registered lower levels of criminal thinking, criminal identification, and deviance than white-collar offenders previously arrested for non-white-collar crimes. David O Friedrichs. The concept of occupational crime—as one of the principal forms of white collar crime—has been quite familiar and widely invoked since the publication of Clinard and Quinney's influential Criminal Behavior Systems: A Typology. More recently, however, the term occupational crime has been applied to activities quite removed from the original meaning of white collar crime, and it has been used interchangeably with such terms as occupational deviance and workplace crime. In the interest of greater conceptual clarity within the field of white collar crime the argument is made here for restricting the term 'occupational crime' to illegal and unethical activities committed for individual financial gain—or to avoid financial loss—in the context of a legitimate occupation. The term 'occupational deviance' is better reserved for deviation from occupational norms (e.g. drinking on the job; sexual harassment), and the term 'workplace crime' is better reserved for conventional forms of crime committed in the workplace (e.g. rape; assault). The conceptual conflation of fundamentally dissimilar activities hinders theoretical, empirical, and policy-related progress in the field of white collar crime studies. Ronald C. Kramer, Raymond J. Michalowski, and David Kauzlarich. The important contributions made by Richard Quinney to the study of corporate crime and the sociology of law, crime, and justice have influenced the development of the concept of state-corporate crime. This concept has been advanced to examine how corporations and governments intersect to produce social harm. State-corporate crime is defined as criminal acts that occur when one or more institutions of political governance pursue a goal in direct cooperation with one or more institutions of economic production and distribution. The creation of this concept has directed attention to a neglected form of organizational crime and inspired numerous empirical studies and theoretical refinements. Chapter 16: Victimology: Exploring the Experience of Victimization Philip Firestone, John M. Bradford, Marcia McCoy, David M. Greenberg, Michel R. Larose, and Susan Curry. Approximately 6.5 years after their conviction, the percentage of incest offenders who had committed a sexual, violent, or criminal offense of any kind was 6.4, 12.4, and 26.7, respectively. The sexual recidivists scored higher on the Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST), and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). The violent recidivists had higher MAST and PCL-R scores as well as more violence in their police records. Regarding any criminal recidivism, recidivists were older and reported higher rates of being physically abused, and being removed from their homes prior to 16 years of age. They demonstrated more hostility on the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, and higher MAST and PCL-R scores. They also had more previous charges or convictions for sexual, violent, and criminal acts. A combination of total criminal offenses, PCL-R, age, and the number of previous sexual offenses correctly classified 97.6% of the nonrecidivists and 35.4% of the recidivists for any reoffense. Bradley R. E. Wright, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, and Ray Paternoster. Society's efforts to deter crime with punishment may be ineffective because those individuals most prone to commit crime often act impulsively, with little thought for the future, and so they may be unmoved by the threat of later punishment. Deterrence messages they receive, therefore, may fall on deaf ears. This article examines this issue by testing the relationship between criminal propensity, perceived risks and costs of punishment, and criminal behavior. Nadine Recker Rayburn, Mitchell Earleywine, and Gerald C. Davison. This study uses the unmatched count technique (UCT) to estimate base rates for hate crime victimization in college students and compares the results with estimates found using conventional methods. Hate crimes, criminal acts perpetrated against individuals or members of specific stigmatized groups, intend to express condemnation, hate, disapproval, dislike, or distrust for a group.
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