Learning from Journals Articles

Journal Article Discussion Questions

1. What is the thesis or main idea from this article?
2. What are the hypotheses?
3. Is there any prior literature related to the hypotheses?
4. What methods are used to support the hypotheses?
5. Is this a qualitative study or quantitative study?
6. What are the results, and how does the author present the results?
7. Do youbelieve that the authors provided a persuasive argument? Why or why not?
8. Who is the intended audience of this article?
9. What does the article add to your knowledge of the subject?
10. What are the implications for criminal justice policy that can be derived from this article?

INTRODUCTION
Section I: History and Development of the Juvenile Court and Justice Process
Section II: Police and Juvenile Offenders
Section III: Juvenile Detention and Court Intake
Section IV: Transfer to Criminal Court
Section V: The Juvenile Court Process
Section VI: Juvenile Corrections
Section VII: The Future of Juvenile Justice

Introduction Section

Smith, D., & Sueda, K. (2008). The killing of children by children as a symptom of national crisis: Reactions in Britain and Japan. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 8, 5-25.
http://ccj.sagepub.com

Abstract
In this article, we describe and analyse the public and political responses to two notorious cases of the killing of children by children, one in Merseyside, England and one in Kobe, Japan. We discuss the ways in which the cases were presented as symptomatic of wider social problems, and how in both Britain and Japan they acted as a catalyst for changes in the juvenile criminal justice system. The article describes and attempts to explain both similarities and differences in the reactions to the killings in Britain and Japan, arguing that while the differences may be more obvious the similarities may be more instructive, and setting the description in the context of penological arguments about globalization and the emergence of a postmodern penality. We conclude that neither country is as unique in its responses to juvenile crime as is sometimes claimed, and that despite `postmodern' anxieties and scepticism in both countries, a `modernist' welfare approach to the reintegration of the killers remained feasible in both Britain and Japan.

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Welsh, B.C., Loeber, R., Stevens, B.R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Cohen, M.A., & Farrington, D.P. (2008). Costs of Juvenile Crime in Urban Areas: A Longitudinal Perspective. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 3-27
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
It is important to calculate the monetized social burden of crime, and a longitudinal perspective offers distinct advantages over studies limited to one year. This study assessed the monetary costs to society of self-reported male juvenile offending in urban areas. Previously published estimates of victim costs of a number of violent and property crimes were used to calculate the monetized social burden of criminal activity of a cohort of 503 boys (ages 7–17 years), comprising the youngest sample of the Pittsburgh Youth Study. Conservatively estimated, the cohort caused a substantial burden of harm to society in the form of victimization costs, ranging from a low of $89 million to a high of $110 million. From an early age the cohort was responsible for substantial crime victim losses, with these losses mounting in the teen years. Importantly, it is argued that high crime costs do not themselves suggest a policy solution. Implications for policy and research are explored within this context.

Section I: History and Development of the Juvenile Court and Justice Process

D'Angelo, J., & Brown, M.P. (2008). Missouri Juvenile Justice Reform Act of 1995: A Comparison of Case Outcomes for 1994 and 2000. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 314-332.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study evaluates the intended and unintended consequences of the Missouri Juvenile Justice Reform Act of 1995. Factors related to sentence outcomes are examined prior to the Act's passage and then several years after the Act was implemented. The elimination of sex and race biases were intended goals of the Act. Although the analyses reveal mixed findings, the results clearly indicate that sex and race equity was not achieved. Some evidence suggests that judges may be taking a more retributive approach since the passage of the Reform Act, for example, not placing as much emphasis on drug/alcohol use when making sentencing decisions. Alternative explanations are offered.

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Hinton, W.J., Sims, P.L., Adams, M.A., & West, C. (2007). Juvenile Justice: A System Divided. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18, 466-483.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
An increasing public focus on the effects of juvenile crime on society has dramatically impacted juvenile justice policy decisions in recent years. Historically, juvenile justice policy makers have attempted to address juvenile crime by promoting policies that address the rehabilitative needs of the offender. However, throughout the last 20 years of the 20th century, policy makers have advocated more punitive offense-based policies to address juvenile crime. This article examines the differences between these two approaches and the implications associated with the continued emergence of a more offense-based approach compared to the offender-based approach, which historically has been the foundation of the American juvenile justice system. The authors hope to stimulate discussion among stakeholders in the juvenile justice system to promote sound policy decisions based on scientific evidence.

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Benekos, P.J., & Merlo, A.V. (2005). Juvenile Offenders and the Death Penalty: How Far Have Standards of Decency Evolved? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 316-333.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
In 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that because they are less culpable and less able to deliberate about their behaviors, the execution of mentally retarded offenders exceeded the prevailing standards of decency (Atkins v. Virginia). Based on this rationale, and with increasing concerns over wrongful convictions and the execution of innocent defendants, some questioned whether the Court’s decision could also apply to juvenile offenders. In March 2005, the majority of the justices determined that executing adolescent offenders violated the Eighth Amendment (Roper v. Simmons). This article reviews (a) recent court decisions on the death penalty, (b) citizen and student opinions on juvenile executions, and (c) comparative policies on juvenile executions. The authors also discuss the politics of the death penalty and the consequences of Roper on juvenile justice policy.

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Section II: Police and Juvenile Offenders

Famega, C. N. (2009). Proactive Policing by Post and Community Officers. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 78-104.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
Using data collected through social observations of 188 police officer shifts, the current research examines the time allocated to proactive and reactive activities by traditional and community police officers to assess (a) the extent to which post officers engage in proactive activities, (b) whether these activities differ from the (proactive) activities conducted by community officers, (c) whether post and community officers' activities reflect an emphasis on different functions of policing, and (d) to what extent the activities of both types of officers reflect community policing philosophy.

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Carrington, P.J. & Schulenberg, J.L. (2008). Structuring Police Discretion: The Effect on Referrals to Youth Court. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 349-367.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
This article examines the impact of the Youth Criminal Justice Act of 2002 on police discretion with apprehended young offenders in Canada. Data for 1986 to 2005 from the Canadian Uniform Crime Reporting Survey are analyzed using an interrupted time series design. The Youth Criminal Justice Act was successful in achieving its objective of reducing youth court referrals by structuring police discretion. It caused a substantial change in the exercise of police discretion with apprehended youth: a substantial decrease in the use of charges and a corresponding increase in the use of alternatives to charging. The substitution of extrajudicial measures for charges occurred in all four regions of Canada and was much greater with minor offenses than with serious youth crime. Possible reasons for the success of the Youth Criminal Justice Act are discussed.

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Hurst, Y.G. (2007). Juvenile Attitudes Toward the Police: An Examination of Rural Youth. Criminal Justice Review, 32, 121-141.
http://cjr.sagepub.com

Abstract
The past three decades have seen an increase in research on the attitudes of juveniles toward the police. This research suggests that juveniles are generally less positive in their attitudes toward the police than are adults. However, most research on juvenile attitudes has focused on youth residing in metropolitan areas, ignoring the role of geographical location in explaining perceptions. Using survey data, the present study examined the attitudes of rural youth toward the police. The findings suggest that although the level of support among rural teenagers did not mirror the levels found within the adult literature, rural teenagers may be more supportive of the police than their metropolitan counterparts. Furthermore, whereas White teenagers were generally more positive in their perception of the police than were Black teenagers, race was not a significant predictor of attitudes toward the police. Still, many of the variables identified as theoretically relevant in the existing literature were significant predictors of the attitudes of juveniles residing in rural areas.

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Tang, C.M. (2006). Developmentally Sensitive Forensic Interviewing of Preschool Children: Some Guidelines Drawn From Basic Psychological Research. Criminal Justice Review, 31, 132-145.
http://cjr.sagepub.com

Abstract
Interviewing preschool children who are victims or witnesses of crime to ensure accuracy and completeness of their recall is no easy task. Rising up to the challenge, a large number of empirical psychological studies related to interviewing young children have been conducted in the past decades. Most of these studies were applied research, simulating circumstances of real forensic interviews. It is believed, however, that more basic research could also be informative. The present article thus selectively reviews more basic psychological research in the areas of memory development, language development, and conceptual development as they relate to the forensic interviewing of preschool children. Based on characteristics of preschool children’s development in these areas, some useful guidelines are generated for forensic interviewers. Recommendations for future research are also made.

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Weitzer, R.,Tuch, S.A., & Skogan, W.G. (2008). Police–Community Relations in a Majority-Black City. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45, 398-428.
http://jrc.sagepub.com

Abstract
Minority racial and ethnic groups often view themselves as targets of abusive treatment at the hands of the police. Although racial variation in public assessments of the police in the United States has been amply documented in past research, less research has explored the sources of these differences at the intersection of demographic, interactional, and ecological levels. This article examines the role of each factor in shaping citizens' perceptions of police misconduct, racial differences in these perceptions, and the reasons underlying them. The locus of the study is also important. Most research on police–community relations has been conducted in cities whose populations and police departments are majority White in composition, despite the growing number of minority-White cities. The present study draws on data from residents of a majority-Black city with a majority-Black police department: Washington, DC. The findings contribute to our understanding of policing in such underresearched cities.

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Thrane, L., Chen, X., Johnson, K., & Whitbeck, L.B. (2008). Predictors of Police Contact Among Midwestern Homeless and Runaway Youth. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 227-239.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Research has substantiated that homeless and runaway youth are at high risk for offending and deviant behavior. Although gender, abuse, and deviant peers have been implicated in arrests among homeless youth, we know less about whether these precursors operate similarly for police harassment as well as for postrunaway arrest. In a study of 361 Midwestern homeless and runaway youth, several differences were noted between the predictors of arrest and police harassment. First, path-analytic techniques demonstrated that having deviant friends promoted harassment but not arrest. Second, substance use was the impetus for police harassment, whereas age at first runaway was consequential for arrest. Third, physically abused youth encountered more harassment, yet minor delinquent behavior increased the risk of arrest.

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Liederbach, J. (2007). Controlling Suburban and Small-Town Hoods: An Examination of Police Encounters With Juveniles. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 107-124.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
We currently lack systematic observational data concerning street-level interactions between police and juveniles in nonurban jurisdictions. This study uses systematic social observation (SSO) methods to examine the nature and character of police encounters with juveniles age 13 to 17 years in 20 suburban and small-town jurisdictions in terms of (a) the types of problems nonurban officers confronted while interacting with juveniles, (b) the actions taken by officers to resolve these problems, and (c) the discretionary decision making of officers in arrest situations involving juveniles. The findings suggest similarities and differences between nonurban officers and previously studied urban officers in terms of how they interact with juveniles. A discussion regarding how these findings may be interpreted is offered, highlighting the general need for more research concerning street-level interactions between police and juveniles, and the importance of including samples of nonurban communities in studies of police–juvenile encounters.

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Section III: Juvenile Detention and Court Intake

Leiber, M. J., and Johnson, J. D. (2008). Being Young and Black: What Are Their Effects on Juvenile Justice Decision Making? Crime & Delinquency, 54, 560-581.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study examined the extent to which race and age individually and jointly determined juvenile justice case outcomes at intake and judicial disposition among males in one county juvenile court in the state of Iowa. Using an interpretation of the symbolic threat thesis and the emphasis on stereotyping as the theoretical framework, we discovered that being Black and older increased a youth's chances of receiving an intake court referral and decreased the odds of participation in intake diversion. Age did not condition intake decision making for African Americans but was discovered to temper case outcomes for Whites. Although individual relationships were found, there was no evidence of joint race-age effects in decision making at judicial disposition.

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McReynolds, L.S., Wasserman, G.A., DeComo, R.E., John, R., Keating, J.M., & Nolen, S. (2008). Psychiatric Disorder in a Juvenile Assessment Center. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 313-334.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
Juvenile assessment centers (JACs) were developed to address service fragmentation and promote the sharing of information among agencies providing services to youth involved with the juvenile justice system. To date, there are no reports that describe the diagnostic profiles of the youth served by such centers. The authors hypothesize that the rates of psychiatric disorder among youth at JAC intake would be lower than rates reported for youth in secure care, that girls would show higher rates of some disorders, and that those with substance disorders would show higher rates of other, co-occurring disorders. Disorder was measured on the Voice Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children in 1,012 randomly selected youth (248 girls). Rates of disorder for JAC youth are lower than those reported for incarcerated samples and more comparable to other general intake samples; JAC youth's diagnostic profiles remain elevated compared to youth in the general population, and girls report higher rates of disorder in three of four diagnostic clusters examined. Clinical and policy implications are discussed.

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Miller, J., & Lin, J. (2007). Applying a Generic Juvenile Risk Assessment Instrument to a Local Context: Some Practical and Theoretical Lessons. Crime & Delinquency, 53, 552-580.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
This article examines issues raised by the application of a generic actuarial juvenile risk instrument (the Model Risk Assessment Instrument) to New York City, a context different from the one in which it was developed. It describes practical challenges arising from the constraints of locally available data and local sensibilities and highlights important differences between locally relevant recidivism predictors and generic tool predictors. The analysis shows that the generic tool is less predictive than a locally developed risk-assessment tool and also performs less well than unassisted clinical judgment. This is true even after the generic tool has been validated and optimized on local data. This is because the tool does not include key demographic variables relevant to the New York City context.

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Schwalbe, C.S. (2008). A Meta-Analysis of Juvenile Justice Risk Assessment Instruments: Predictive Validity by Gender. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1367-1381.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Juvenile justice systems have widely adopted risk assessment instruments to support judicial and administrative decisions about sanctioning severity and restrictiveness of care. A little explored property of these instruments is the extent to which their predictive validity generalizes across gender. The article reports on a meta-analysis of risk assessment predictive validity with male and female offenders. Nineteen studies encompassing 20 unique samples met inclusion criteria. Findings indicated that predictive validity estimates are equivalent for male and female offenders and are consistent with results of other meta-analyses in the field. The findings also indicate that when gender differences are observed in individual studies, they provide evidence for gender biases in juvenile justice decision-making and case processing rather than for the ineffectiveness of risk assessment with female offenders.

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Lodewijks, H.P.B., Doreleijers, T.A.H., & De Ruiter, C. (2008). Savry Risk Assessment in Violent Dutch Adolescents: Relation to Sentencing and Recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 696-709.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study examines the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) by examining relationships between SAVRY scores and violent reoffending during a 3-year period after sentencing. Two types of sentences were studied: a mandatory treatment order (N = 77) and a juvenile prison sentence (N = 40). The predictive validity of the SAVRY was significant for the two types of sentences. The predictive validity of the unstructured clinical judgment proved to be not significant. Support was found for the hypothesis that the juvenile court's sentence (treatment versus detention) might have been influenced by the unstructured clinical risk assessment of the mental health experts, even though this assessment is a poor predictor of violent reoffending.

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Meyers, J.R., & Schmidt, F. (2008). Predictive Validity of the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) With Juvenile Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35: 344-355.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

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Abstract
Violence is a serious social problem that is often encountered in the youth justice system. Identifying those adolescents who are at the highest risk for future violence is an important step toward effective rehabilitation. The current study examined the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), a structured professional judgment risk tool, in a sample of 121 juvenile offenders. The SAVRY was found to have strong predictive validity, a finding that was robust across gender and ethnicity. The SAVRY obtained ROC values of .75 and .66 for general and violent recidivism, respectively, for 1 year, and values of .76 and .77 for general and violent recidivism, respectively, for 3-year follow-up. For nonviolent recidivism, the ROC values were .80 for 1-year and .68 during 3 years. Use of the SAVRY in the youth justice system, and limitations of the study, are discussed.

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Viljoen, J.L., Scalora, M., Cuadra, L., Bader, S., Chávez, V., Ullman, D., & Lawrence, L. (2008). Assessing Risk for Violence in Adolescents Who Have Sexually Offended: A Comparison of the J-SOAP-II, J-SORRAT-II, and SAVRY. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 5-23.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
As the youth justice system has evolved, clinicians have been increasingly asked to make judgments about the likelihood that a youth who has committed a sexual offense will reoffend. However, there is an absence of well-validated tools to assist with these judgments. This study examined the ability of the Juvenile Sexual Offense Recidivism Risk Assessment Tool—II (J-SORRAT-II), Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), and Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol—II (J-SOAP-II) to predict violent behavior in 169 male youth who were admitted to a residential adolescent sex offender program. Total scores on the SAVRY and J-SOAP-II significantly predicted nonsexual violence but none of the instruments predicted sexual violence. The J-SOAP-II and SAVRY were less effective in predicting violent reoffending in youth aged 15 and younger than in older youth. The implications of these findings are discussed.

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Butler, M.A., Loney, B.R., & Kistner, J. (2007). The Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument as a Predictor of Institutional Maladjustment in Severe Male Juvenile Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 476-492.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
The Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument—Version 2 (MAYSI-2) is a brief triage tool designed to pinpoint youth in the juvenile justice system at risk for mental health—related difficulties. The current study investigated the relation between the MAYSI-2 and institutional maladjustment at a residential treatment facility specializing in the rehabilitation of severe male juvenile offenders. Institutional maladjustment data were collected during the first 90 days of commitment for 104 male juvenile offenders who also completed the MAYSI-2 during orientation to the facility. The Angry-Irritable subscale of the MAYSI-2 uniquely predicted severe rule violations and intensive supervision placement. However, hit rate analyses revealed a high level of false negatives for the published subscale cut scores. Implications of these and related findings are discussed.

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Schwalbe, C.S., Fraser, M.W., & Day, S.H. (2007). Predictive Validity of the Joint Risk Matrix With Juvenile Offenders: A Focus on Gender and Race/Ethnicity. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 348-361.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Actuarial risk assessment instruments promise to increase decision-making accuracy and equity in settings such as the juvenile justice system, but both aims presume high levels of predictive validity. Prior research suggests that the predictive validity of some juvenile justice risk assessment instruments differs across gender and race/ethnicity. The Joint Risk Matrix (JRM) described herein is an instrument developed to increase the predictive validity of risk assessment for the diverse populations served by the nation’s juvenile courts. The predictive validity of the JRM was estimated on a sample of 536 court-involved juveniles. The instrument demonstrated acceptable levels of validity across all juveniles (AUC = .710). Gender-based differences were explained by gendered patterns of referral to out-of-home placements. Differences by race/ethnicity were reduced compared with previous reports. The findings suggest that risk assessment can be improved by including measures related to the behavior and demeanor of offenders and the cooperation of their parents or caretakers.

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Gavazzi, S.M., Yarcheck, C.M., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2006). Global Risk Indicators and the Role of Gender in a Juvenile Detention Sample. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 597-612.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Growing evidence regarding the gender-specific nature of risk/needs factors in girls coming to the attention of the juvenile court is contrasted with the limited availability of gender-sensitive assessment instruments designed to measure risk/needs. In the present study, data are gathered from a sample of male and female youth assessed at a juvenile court detention facility. As hypothesized, analyses revealed significantly higher scores for males on prior offenses and significantly higher scores for females on family/parenting, mental health, traumatic events, and health-related risks. Unexpectedly, females also scored significantly higher than males in domains associated with psychopathy, accountability, and peer relationships. Female and male youth also differed in type of offense that brought them to the attention of the detention facility. In turn, type of offense was a predictor of risk/needs levels in the family/parenting domain, underscoring the particularly salient role family factors play in the lives of court-involved youth.

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Schwalbe, C.S., Fraser, M.W., Day, S.H., & Cooley, V. (2006). Classifying Juvenile Offenders According to Risk of Recidivism: Predictive Validity, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 305-324.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Structured risk assessment instruments are increasingly used in juvenile justice systems to support judicial decision making. They help juvenile justice authorities identify youths with a higher likelihood of repeat delinquency and reduce discretion associated with disposition decision making. To be effective, these instruments should be accurate across diverse populations. This study describes the predictive validity of the North Carolina Assessment of Risk (NCAR) in a sample of 9,534 adjudicated juveniles in North Carolina. Results show the predictive validity of the NCAR to differ by gender and race/ethnicity. Closer inspection reveals that risk factors for recidivism differed according to demographic group and that brief risk assessment instruments such as the NCAR leave other risk factors unmeasured. The results support the utility of risk assessment for juvenile justice decision making and suggest strategies to improve the validity of risk assessment for all offender groups.

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Poythress, N.G., Dembo, R., Wareham, J., & Greenbaum, P.E. (2006). Construct Validity of the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory (YPI) and the Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD) With Justice-Involved Adolescents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 26-55.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Two measures of psychopathic features in youths, the self-report version of the Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD) and the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory (YPI) were administered to 165 youths in a juvenile diversion program. For both measures, internal consistency was poor for the scales that assess the affective domain of psychopathic features; otherwise, internal consistency was excellent for the YPI and generally superior to that of the APSD. However, the published three-factor models for both measures did not replicate when examined using confirmatory factor analysis. Both measures obtained the expected correlations with measures of a variety of criminal justice (e.g., age of delinquency onset, past year delinquent behavior) and psychological constructs (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behavior), providing evidence of construct validity for both measures. The YPI appears to be the better measure for exploring the construct of psychopathy in adolescents. Recommendations are made concerning revisions to the APSD.

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Schwalbe, C.S., Macy, R.J., Day, S.H., & Fraser, M.W. (2008). Classifying Offenders: An Application of Latent Class Analysis to Needs Assessment in Juvenile Justice. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 279-294.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Structured needs assessment instruments aid in-service planning in the juvenile justice system. This article uses latent class analysis to classify juvenile offenders into categories or types based on need profiles using a sample of 542 youthful offenders. The study identified five profiles based on scores from a structured needs assessment instrument.

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Chapman, J.F., Desai, R.A., Falzer, P.R., & Borum, R. (2006). Violence Risk and Race in a Sample of Youth in Juvenile Detention: The Potential to Reduce Disproportionate Minority Confinement. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 170-184.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Structured needs assessment instruments aid in-service planning in the juvenile justice system. This article uses latent class analysis to classify juvenile offenders into categories or types based on need profiles using a sample of 542 youthful offenders. The study identified five profiles based on scores from a structured needs assessment instrument.

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Glaser, B.A., Calhoun, G.B., & Puder, R.J. (2005). Using the Juvenile Offender Parent Questionnaire (JOPQ) as a Risk and Needs Assessment: A Prospective Study. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 253-264.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Structured needs assessment instruments aid in-service planning in the juvenile justice system. This article uses latent class analysis to classify juvenile offenders into categories or types based on need profiles using a sample of 542 youthful offenders. The study identified five profiles based on scores from a structured needs assessment instrument.

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Finckenauer, J.O., Margaryan, S., & Sullivan, M.L. (2005). Evaluability Assessment in Juvenile Justice: A Case Example. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 265-275.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
An evaluability assessment of three programs of the Juvenile Justice Commission of the State of New Jersey was undertaken. Operation Hook-Up, the Hudson County YAP Challenge Program, and the Monmouth County Bullying Prevention Project were assessed. This included interviewing program personnel, site visits, reviewing the record-keeping systems, and meeting with the staff of the Juvenile Justice Commission and of the programs. This assessment enabled the researchers to acquire firsthand knowledge of the programs that led to the development of tailored evaluation designs for two programs. This article describes the programs, the assessment, and the bases for our recommendations.

Section IV: Transfer to Criminal Court

Applegate, B.K., Davis, R.K., & Cullen, F.T. (2009). Reconsidering Child Saving: The Extent and Correlates of Public Support for Excluding Youths From the Juvenile Court. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 51-77.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
The 1990s saw concerted legislative efforts to increase the mechanisms through which juveniles could be transferred to the adult court. Beginning research exists on how the public feels about transferring youths out of the juvenile justice system, but it is somewhat dated and does little to illuminate the reasons people support transfer. Using a statewide sample and factorial survey design, this study assesses how public views are related to multiple factors, including offense and offender characteristics, views on the appropriate aims of juvenile sentencing, perceptions of juvenile maturity, and expectations about the results of transferring juvenile cases to the adult criminal justice system. Our findings suggest that people want transfer used sparingly and selectively and that support is greatest when they believe that the adult system can provide effective rehabilitation as well as punishment. Implications are discussed.

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Burrow, J. (2008). Reverse Waiver and the Effects of Legal, Statutory, and Secondary Legal Factors on Sentencing Outcomes for Juvenile Offenders. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 34-64.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
Over the past few decades, various forms of waiver have become increasingly used at the state level. Generally, the research literature has focused on three types of waiver: judicial, prosecutorial, and legislative. Reverse waiver, a fourth type, remains little studied. Moreover, little is known of the factors that judges consider when making the decision to either sentence juvenile offenders as adults or sentence them as juveniles after they have been waived. This article is an attempt to shed some light on how factors unrelated to the instant offense, often the case with reverse waiver, may affect sentencing outcomes for waived offenders. Several important findings were revealed. First, judges are sentencing the most violent and serious offenders as adults. Second, secondary legal factors such as pending charges and prior placements influence the sentencing decision. Third, the amount of experience that judges have in handling waiver cases significantly influences the sentencing decision.

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Jan, I., Ball, J.D., & Walsh, A. (2008). Predicting Public Opinion About Juvenile Waivers. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 285-300.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
The accountability movement of the juvenile justice system in the late 1980s and early 1990s encouraged more punitive practices. Public opinion was strong during this time. The attitudes about the juvenile justice system are a product of individual demographic, cultural, and political characteristics. This study addresses opinions about juvenile waivers—a punitive sanction—examining data from the National Opinion Survey of Crime and Justice in the 1990s. This study analyzes attitudes about juvenile waivers, using multivariate quantitative methods. The results indicate a consistent relationship between the perception of the sentencing goals of the juvenile court (punishment versus rehabilitation) and one's attitudes toward the use of juvenile waivers. Contrary to the generated hypotheses, though, attitudes about juvenile waivers were not consistently dependent on individual demographic, cultural, or political characteristics.

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Rainville, G. (2008). Juveniles Transferred to Criminal Courts: Is Their Criminal Sentence Dependent on How They Got There? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 301-313.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
This research seeks to determine whether the manner in which a juvenile is transferred to criminal court affects the length of confinement sentences. A significant difference in confinement sentences was noted between juveniles transferred by statutory exclusion and those waived after a judicial hearing. An underlying political mechanism is deemed responsible for this finding. As such, this research evokes the tension between the political incentives of legislators, the popular will, and the relative expertise of court actors in forming sentencing policy for transferred juveniles.

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Soothill, K., Ackerley, E., & Francis, B. (2008). Criminal convictions among children and young adults: Changes over time. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 8, 297-315.
http://ccj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study focuses on court conviction rates—that is, the numbers and proportion of the population in England and Wales who are convicted of a crime between the ages of 10—25. Data on over 47,000 male and 10,000 female offenders for six specific birth cohorts (those born in 1953, 1958, 1963, 1968, 1973 and 1978) were extracted from the Offenders Index. We related convictions in three age groups (10—15, 16—20, 21—25) to population estimates for these age groups. Striking differences in the conviction rates over time were observed for both males and females. There is a remarkable decline among the 10—15 age group for more recent cohorts which echoes the increasing use of court diversionary procedures in this age group. There is no corresponding increase in conviction rates for the later age groups. These figures suggest that efforts in the 1980s and early 1990s to divert offenders away from court convictions have been successful, and that such diversionary schemes need to be encouraged.

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Jordan, K.L., & Myers, D.L. (2007). The Decertification of Transferred Youth: Examining the Determinants of Reverse Waiver. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 188-206.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Much of the research on juvenile transfer to adult court examines the predictors of the waiver decision. Few studies, however, have focused on the determinants of decertification, a process whereby certain initially transferred youth are reverse waived to juvenile court. This study sought to examine this underresearched area by focusing specifically on the factors that predict decertification and utilizing quantitative data pertaining to 345 youth initially transferred to adult court in 1996 under Pennsylvania's law that automatically excludes certain youth from juvenile court jurisdiction. The findings indicated that legal factors are the strongest predictors of decertification. The need for further research and policy implications also are discussed.

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Lemmon, J.H., Austin, T.L., Verrecchia, P.J., & Fetzer, M. (2005). The Effect of Legal and Extralegal Factors on Statutory Exclusion of Juvenile Offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 214-234.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
The study describes implementation of legislation that excludes youth offenders from juvenile court jurisdiction and examines two elements of deterrence theory that underscored the legislation’s rationale. Between-court analyses comparing youths decertified to juvenile court with those remaining in criminal court report no between-court differences concerning the certainty of punishment. Although the criminal court was more likely to impose more severe sentences, controls on legal sentencing factors explained the between-group differences. Legal and extralegal factors predicted the likelihood of certainty and severity of punishment within the juvenile and adult systems respectively. Implications for the restorative justice model are discussed.

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Titus, J.J. (2005). Juvenile Transfers as Ritual Sacrifice: Legally Constructing the Child Scapegoat. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 116-132.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This article explores the dramaturgy of juvenile transfer provisions for the vestiges of ancient practices of child sacrifice that they reveal. Relying on theories by Girard, the social discord caused by young children who commit violent criminal acts is examined as a sacrificial crisis. The rhetorical demonization of the child criminal is described as their expurgation (as "Other"), the means by which their status is converted to scapegoat for the innocents their surrogacy benefits. Rather than deterrence or retribution functions, the legal response to children’s normative violations that involves transferring children to adult criminal court are presented here as an institutionalized and symbolic form of sacrifice to resolve a cultural crisis and ensure societal cohesion.

Section V: The Juvenile Court Process

O'Donnell, P.C. & Lurigio, A.J. (2008). Psychosocial Predictors of Clinicians' Recommendations and Judges' Placement Orders in a Juvenile Court. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1429-1448.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
A large proportion of youthful offenders who enter the juvenile justice system have psychiatric disorders and psychosocial risk factors that perpetuate delinquency, and addressing these issues has been a growing concern of juvenile courts nationwide. This study examines the relationship between the clinical information provided through comprehensive forensic assessments and clinicians' recommendations for placement (community setting vs. secure facility) and judges' sentencing decisions. The sample included 248 youth, ranging from 11 to 17 years old, who were adjudicated in the Cook County (Chicago) Juvenile Court. A reliable and valid approach for coding psychosocial variables is also presented as a prototype for future research. Consistent with previous studies, results show that judges are inclined to adopt clinical recommendations and that the material provided by comprehensive clinical evaluations could diminish the effects of offense and delinquency-based factors on dispositions.

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Viljoen, J.L., Vincent, G.M., & Roesch, R. (2006). Assessing Adolescent Defendants' Adjudicative Competence: Interrater Reliability and Factor Structure of the Fitness Interview Test–Revised. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 467-487.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
As a result of changing legal standards, forensic clinicians have a greater likelihood of being faced with the task of assessing adolescents' adjudicative competence. This study examines the reliability and factor structure of the Fitness Interview Test, Revised Edition (FIT-R), in 152 male and female defendants ages 11 to 17. The interrater reliability of items and sections on the FIT-R is good. Most intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for items fall between .60 and .91, and ICCs for section summary scores range from .82 to .91. Consistent with the design of the FIT-R, confirmatory factor analysis supports a three-factor model, which includes understanding and reasoning about legal proceedings, appreciation of the charges and possible consequences of proceedings, and the ability to communicate with counsel. These factors are united by a dominant superordinate factor. Recommendations are made regarding the clinical use of the FIT-R in the assessment of adolescent competency.

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Brank, E.M., & Lane, J. (2008). Punishing My Parents: Juveniles' Perspectives on Parental Responsibility. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 333-348.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
Interviews of 147 juveniles in postadjudication residential facilities revealed that the juveniles generally did not believe their parents were responsible for the illegal activities of the juvenile. A vast majority of juveniles said that their parents were not responsible at all and also said that if they had known that their parents would also be punished for their crimes, they would have been less likely to commit the crimes. No patterns emerged for these questions based on the demographic or social characteristics of the juveniles. Implications of the juveniles' perspective are considered, focusing particularly on the juveniles' lack of willingness to place accountability on their parents.

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Greene, E., & Weber, K. (2008). Teen Court Jurors' Sentencing Decisions. Criminal Justice Review, 33, 361-378.
http://cjr.sagepub.com

Abstract
Teen Courts provide a forum in which juvenile offenders are sentenced by their peers. This system, based on principles of restorative justice, serves as an alternative to the traditional juvenile justice system. Sentencing options typically include restitution, community service, jury duty, apologies, attendance at educational workshops, and tours of correctional facilities. Previous research has examined the effectiveness of Teen Courts but little is known about how sentencing decisions are made. The purpose of this study was to assess how adolescent jurors make such decisions in one Teen Court program. The authors observe 32 Teen Court trials and deliberations and question 98 adolescent jurors about their sentencing choices. Results show that the deliberations are fairly cursory and that jurors have poor recollections of what evidence had been presented. Still, they put more weight on evidentiary information than on extralegal factors, and were motivated by a desire to rehabilitate offenders and set them on a socially acceptable path—goals consistent with restorative justice objectives on which Teen Court programs are based.

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Polakowski, M., Hartley, R.E., & Bates, L. (2008). Treating the Tough Cases in Juvenile Drug Court: Individual and Organizational Practices Leading to Success or Failure. Criminal Justice Review, 33, 379-404.
http://cjr.sagepub.com

Abstract
Drug Courts are a fundamental change to trial courts. They are considered less adversarial and may alter past notions of treatment for offenders. One goal of drug courts is to provide defendants

the opportunity to alter their drug-addicted lifestyles through intense supervision, feedback, treatment, and graduated sanctions and rewards for behavior. This study uses logistic regression to examine measures of failure such as termination from drug court and two measures of offender recidivism. Although the literature on drug courts has been developing for several years, the reality is that universal templates for explanation do not yet exist in the juvenile arena. This paper examines correlates that explain the above measures of failure. The study also proposes the creation of new measures that may assist future research. Findings indicate that participant experiences within the drug court program are the strongest predictors of termination and recidivism.

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Kupchik, A. (2006). The Decision to Incarcerate in Juvenile and Criminal Courts. Criminal Justice Review, 31, 309-336.
http://cjr.sagepub.com

Abstract
Despite a recent proliferation of laws transferring adolescents from juvenile court to criminal court, no research examines whether these transfer policies subject adolescents to a different set of evaluative criteria in criminal courts than in juvenile courts. Prior literature and political rhetoric suggest that a criminal justice model of offense-based evaluative criteria would apply in the criminal court, in contrast to an offender-based juvenile justice model. Yet this hypothesis remains untested by prior research. In response, this article tests whether legal and case-processing factors have a relatively greater influence in criminal than in juvenile court, as the literature and political rhetoric would predict. To do so, the author uses comparable samples of cases, matched by age and offense, from two adjacent jurisdictions with different thresholds for criminal court eligibility. By finding no differences among factors predicting sentencing across the two legal forums, the results challenge widely held assumptions about the distinctions between juvenile and criminal courts.

***

Boyd, R.J., Huss, S.M., & Myers, D.L. (2008). Antecedents and Consequences of Juvenile Case Processing: Where Are We Now, and Where Do We Go From Here? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 195-220
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Philosophical and practical changes in the juvenile justice system are influenced by, and have implications for, timely and quality juvenile case processing. Drawing on juvenile case-processing literature published from the late 1970s until present, the antecedents and consequences of juvenile case processing are discussed in an effort to draw attention to possible causal relationships. The authors argue that juvenile case-processing efficiency is, perhaps, one of the more pivotal issues facing juvenile justice today, and further empirical studies and scholarly dialogue on this issue are needed. The current state of knowledge concerning systemic, intra-agency, and interagency barriers to timely and quality juvenile case processing serves as a springboard for suggestive approaches to examining juvenile case processing from a more rigorous, comprehensive, and holistic perspective.

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Guevara, L., Herz, D., & Spohn, C. (2008). Race, Gender, and Legal Counsel: Differential Outcomes in Two Juvenile Courts. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 83-104.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study examines the influence of race, gender, and type of legal counsel on juvenile court outcomes. Data from a sample of juvenile court referrals from two midwestern juvenile courts indicate that the effect of these factors varied by court location. The severity or leniency of the disposition outcome was determined by race, gender, type of legal counsel, and court location. This study clearly demonstrates the need for an approach that considers the interplay between legally relevant and legally irrelevant factors on juvenile justice decision making.

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Applegate, B.K., & Davis, R.K. (2006). Public Views on Sentencing Juvenile Murderers: The Impact of Offender, Offense, and Perceived Maturity. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 55-74.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Concerns about juvenile murderers were raised by increases in juvenile homicide rates between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. Little is known, however, about what level of punishment the public desires for such youths. Using a randomly selected sample of Florida citizens and a factorial vignette survey approach, the present study assesses the impact of characteristics of the offender, aspects of the offense, and perceptions of a youth’s maturity on public preferences for the punishment of juvenile murderers. Our findings show that the public favors short sentences of incarceration or less punitive responses in most cases and that the most salient determinant of punitiveness is the type of murder committed. These results are discussed in light of prior research and current policy directions.

Section VI: Juvenile Corrections

Craddock, A. (2009). Day Reporting Center Completion: Comparison of Individual and Multilevel Models. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 105-133.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study of 14 day reporting centers demonstrated that findings from analyses that take into account the clustering of clients into programs differ from those that ignore it. The multilevel analysis found that a higher likelihood of completion is associated with being older, White/non-Hispanic, having a current "other" offense, and having emotional problems. Probationers were less likely to complete if they had drug or alcohol problems, primarily criminal companions, and poor living situations. The more time spent in the program and the more contact hours received in employment services were also positively associated with completion. Although a substantial proportion of the variation in the likelihood of completion was found to be due to program-level factors, no specific program characteristics were significant.

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Grant Duwe, G., & Kerschner, D. (2008). Removing a Nail From the Boot Camp Coffin: An Outcome Evaluation of Minnesota's Challenge Incarceration Program. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 614-643.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
Using a retrospective, quasiexperimental design, this study evaluates Minnesota's Challenge Incarceration Program (CIP), examining whether it has lowered recidivism and saved money. In addition to utilizing a lengthy follow-up period and multiple measures of recidivism and participation, a multistage sampling design was employed to create a control group that was not significantly different from the CIP group with respect to control variables. The results reveal that although CIP significantly reduced the time to reoffense, it did not have a significant effect when recidivism was measured as any return to prison. CIP reduced costs through a recidivism reduction, however, because when CIP offenders returned to prison, they stayed 40 fewer days than control group offenders because they were less likely to return for a new crime. Overall, the analyses show that CIP has saved Minnesota at least $6.2 million by providing early release to program graduates and reducing the time they later spend in prison.

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Brank, E., Lane, J., Turner, S., Fain, T., & Sehgal, A. (2008). An Experimental Juvenile Probation Program: Effects on Parent and Peer Relationships. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 193-224.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
In an effort to provide a wider range of services to youth and their families than is traditionally available in routine probation, the South Oxnard Challenge Project (SOCP) employed a team approach to service delivery of an intensive probation program. The researchers interviewed juveniles who were randomly assigned to either the SOCP experimental condition or the control condition of a routine probation program. The intensive probation program, among other goals, focused on improving parent–child relationships and teaching youth how to choose better peers. At 1 year post random assignment, experimental and control youth were not significantly different on key family or peer relationship measures. Level of program intensity, implementation issues, and other problems inherent in doing this type of research are provided as possible explanations for the lack of differences. These null findings are examined in light of the recent movement toward parental involvement legislation.

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Pullmann, M.D., Kerbs, J., Koroloff, N., Veach-White, E., Gaylor, R., & Sieler, D. (2006).
Juvenile Offenders With Mental Health Needs: Reducing Recidivism Using Wraparound. Crime & Delinquency, 52, 375-397.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
The rate of youth with mental health needs is disproportionately high in juvenile justice. Wraparound planning involves families and providers in coordinating juvenile justice, mental health, and other services and supports. This study compares data from two groups of juvenile offenders with mental health problems: 106 youth in a juvenile justice wraparound program called Connections and a historical comparison group of 98 youth in traditional mental health services. Cox regression survival analyses revealed that youth in Connections were significantly less likely to recidivate at all, less likely to recidivate with a felony offense, and served less detention time.

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Perelman, A.M., & Clements, C.B. (2009). Beliefs About What Works in Juvenile Rehabilitation: The Influence of Attitudes on Support for "Get Tough" and Evidence-Based Interventions. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 184-197.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Throughout the past half century, public sentiment about sentencing of offenders has vacillated between rehabilitative and punitive goals. Whether these shifting positions are influenced by actual knowledge regarding program effectiveness or merely reflect underlying attitudes is unknown. The current study used an online survey to examine college students' (N = 130) judgments about the effectiveness of different interventions for juvenile offenders. Results indicated that participants rated three popular but empirically unsupported (get tough) programs as being equally effective as four empirically validated treatments. However, personal attitudes were a strong moderator of program effectiveness ratings. For example, those endorsing rehabilitative goals were more likely to rate empirically supported interventions as effective. A punishment orientation was associated with endorsement of get tough programs. Possible follow-up studies include evaluating the connection between attitudes and program effectiveness knowledge, examining the impact of educational interventions, and conducting replications with justice professionals and community leaders.

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Kuanliang, A., Sorensen, J.R., & Cunningham, M.D. (2008). Juvenile Inmates in an Adult Prison System: Rates of Disciplinary Misconduct and Violence. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1186-1201.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Rates of disciplinary misconduct and violence among juvenile male inmates (N = 703) admitted to a state prison system from 1998 to 2002 are retrospectively examined. The prevalence and frequency of prison misconduct and violence are higher among juveniles than comparison groups of nearest age youthful adults (N = 3,640) and adult prisoners generally (N = 33,114), and this disparity between juvenile and adult inmates increases along with the severity of violence. This relationship is found to hold true even when other known correlates of prison violence are considered. In a logistic regression model that included educational level, gang affiliation, offense of conviction, and sentence length, age is found to be the most consistent and strongest determinant of prison violence, with those younger than 18 at entrance to prison being far more likely than adults to be involved in various levels of prison misconduct and violence.

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Chung, H.L., Schubert, C.A., & Mulvey, E.P. (2007). An Empirical Portrait of Community Reentry Among Serious Juvenile Offenders in Two Metropolitan Cities. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1402-1426.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study examined the community reentry process among 413 serious adolescent offenders released from juvenile court commitments in two metropolitan areas. Data are provided about postrelease court supervision and community-based services (CBSs) during the first 6 months in the community as well as indicators of antisocial activity, formal system involvement, school attendance, and employment. Findings indicate that a far greater proportion of offenders reported receiving supervision than CBSs, but when utilized, the frequency of CBS use was high, and intensive services reduced the odds of formal system involvement. In addition, court supervision increased the likelihood of positive adjustment during community reentry. These results held after controlling for social context variables, including peer deviance, parental monitoring, and contact with caring adults.

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Gallagher, C.A., & Dobrin, A. (2007). Risk of Suicide in Juvenile Justice Facilities: The Problem of Rate Calculations in High-Turnover Populations. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1362-1376.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
Two recent publications have reported vastly different rates of suicide in juvenile-justice residential facilities using the same data. Similarly, divergent rates were calculated on juvenile suicides while in custody using the same data in the 1980s. Using data from the Juvenile Residential Facility Census and the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement, this article demonstrates the underlying differences in the suicide rate calculations by drawing on the historical and epidemiological literature. It highlights the arithmetical relationships between the rates and suggests which methods are best depending on the purpose of the exercise. Facility administrators may find beds-based rates more meaningful for comparisons on rates of suicide across facilities, whereas mental health professionals may prefer person-based rates to describe the risk of suicide in the juvenile justice population.

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Dembo, R., Turner, C.W., & Jainchill, N. (2007). An Assessment of Criminal Thinking Among Incarcerated Youths in Three States. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1157-1167.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
The Texas Christian University Criminal Thinking Scales (CTS) instrument has been shown to predict outcomes for institutionalized adult offenders. This article examines responses among male (n = 151) and female (n = 52) incarcerated adolescents, and they were compared to norms for incarcerated adult offenders. The results indicated that the adolescent sample had higher scores on four scales (Entitlement, Justification, Personal Irresponsibility, Power of Orientation) but not on Criminal Rationalization. Scores did not differ by gender or ethnicity of respondents. The results provide convergent validity indicating that the scores for adolescents were correlated with prior history of criminal behavior, substance use, family dysfunction, and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Fourth Edition diagnoses of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Thus, the CTS may provide useful diagnostic information to help identify youth with a constellation of problem behaviors that predict poor outcomes following incarceration. It also may prove helpful in accounting for individual variations in response to treatment for incarcerated adolescents who receive treatment during reentry back into the community.

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McReynolds, L.S., Wasserman, G.A., Fisher, P., & Lucas, C.P. (2007). Diagnostic Screening With Incarcerated Youths: Comparing the DPS and Voice DISC. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 830-845.
http://cjb.sagepub.com

Abstract
In the first examination in a juvenile justice setting, associations between the DISC Predictive Scales (DPS) and the Voice Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children in identifying mental health concerns were investigated. Assessment center youth (N = 195) completed computerized versions of both instruments. Psychometric properties and logistic regression estimates for diagnostic clusters were examined, and DPS summary subscales to derive cut points for incarcerated youths were created. DPS consistently identified higher percentages of youths. At the cluster level, there was considerable concordance, with agreement higher for the same diagnostic constructs, even after statistical adjustment. Summary subscale cut points identified 82% of disordered youths. Given recommendations for universal screening in corrections, the DPS offers advantages over existing screens as a component of mental health assessment.

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Caldwell, M.F., Vitacco, M., & Van Rybroek, G.J. (2006). Are Violent Delinquents Worth Treating? A Cost–Benefit Analysis. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43, 148-168.
http://jrc.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study reports on the cost benefits of an intensive treatment program for unmanageable juvenile delinquent boys, compared to the usual treatment in a secured juvenile corrections facility. A total of 101 boys who received the majority of their treatment services in a specialized program providing intensive mental health treatment were matched to a group of 101 juveniles who received treatment as usual (TAU) in a secured juvenile corrections setting on the basis of treatment propensity scores. Outcome data included the number and type of criminally charged offenses over an average follow-up period of 53 months (range 14 to 92 months). Borrowing from Cohen criminal justice processing costs for each offense was calculated in 2001 dollars. The initial costs of the program were offset by improved treatment progress and lowered recidivism, especially violent recidivism. The treatment group yielded a benefit-cost ratio of more than 7 to 1 over the TAU group. The results are discussed and compared to cost-benefit analyses of other juvenile treatment programs.

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Bottcher, J., & Ezell, M.E. (2005). Examining the Effectiveness of Boot Camps: A Randomized Experiment with a Long-Term Follow Up. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, 309-332.
http://jrc.sagepub.com

Abstract
The boot camp model became a correctional panacea for juvenile offenders during the early 1990s, promising the best of both worlds—less recidivism and lower operating costs. Although there have been numerous studies of boot camp programs since that time, most have relied on nonrandomized comparison groups. The California Youth Authority’s (CYA’s) experimental study of its juvenile boot camp and intensive parole program (called LEAD)—versus standard custody and parole—was an important exception, but its legislatively mandated in-house evaluation was prepared before complete outcome data were available. The present study capitalizes on full and relatively long-term follow-up arrest data for the LEAD evaluation provided by the California Department of Justice in August 2002. Using both survival models and negative binomial regression models, the results indicate that there were no significant differences between groups in terms of time to first arrest or average arrest frequency.

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Fagan, A.A., Hanson, K., Hawkins, J.D., & Arthur, M.W. (2008). Implementing Effective Community-Based Prevention Programs in the Community Youth Development Study. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 256-278.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
There is mixed evidence regarding the extent to which communities can replicate science-based substance use and delinquency prevention programs with high implementation fidelity, that is, in close adherence to the theoretical rationale and specifications of the program. This article examines implementation of 16 tested and effective preventive interventions replicated during 2004—2006 by 12 communities participating in the Community Youth Development Study. Results revealed that across all programs the majority of required material, core components, and lessons were delivered; implementers were prepared, enthusiastic, and used a variety of teaching practices to convey material; and high levels of engagement by program participants were observed. The results indicate that, using a comprehensive system to proactively monitor implementation, community coalitions can ensure high-quality replication of effective prevention programs.

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Marsh, S.C., & Evans, W.P. (2009). Youth Perspectives on Their Relationships With Staff in Juvenile Correction Settings and Perceived Likelihood of Success on Release. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 46-67.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study explored youth perspectives on their relationships with staff in juvenile correction settings and perceived likelihood of success on release. Surveys were administered to 543 youth committed to select facilities in Alaska, Idaho, Nevada, and Oregon. Youth were asked to nominate a staff they turn to most for help and advice, then report on the qualities of their relationship with that staff. Results indicate that youth have different types of key helping relationships with staff, and that youth forecasts about their future vary across these relationship types.

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Bouffard, J.A., & Bergseth, K.J. (2008). The Impact of Reentry Services on Juvenile Offenders' Recidivism. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 295-318
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Despite recent decline in juvenile crime, the formal processing and incarceration of juveniles has increased. Many incarcerated juveniles return to their communities with serious risk and need areas unaddressed, complicating their chances for successful reentry. Juvenile aftercare and/or reentry programs have emerged to address these youths' unique needs and the risk they pose to public safety. This study examined preliminary process and outcome indicators of a unique juvenile offender reentry program, including a strong mentoring component, compared to similar youth not receiving reentry services. The authors examined service delivery, as well as intermediate outcome measures and short-term recidivism outcomes, including time to first new offense and number of new official contacts within 6 months of release. Findings demonstrate that the program was delivered as intended, successfully created intermediate change in participants, and was modestly effective in reducing recidivism likelihood and increasing time to recidivism.

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Tille, J.E., & Rose, J.C. (2007). Emotional and Behavioral Problems of 13-to-18-Year-Old Incarcerated Female First-Time Offenders and Recidivists. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 426-435.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This exploratory study in Pierce County, Washington, compared emotional and behavioral problems of 13- to 18-year-old incarcerated female first-time offenders (n = 38) and recidivists (n = 78) using the Massachusetts Youth Screening Inventory, Version Two (MAYSI-2) and demographic data. The study found that adolescent female recidivists had more emotional and behavioral problems, more unstable lifestyles, and less stable family situations.

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Trulson, C.R. (2007). Determinants of Disruption: Institutional Misconduct Among State-Committed Delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 7-34.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
With a few exceptions, most of the empirical research on institutional misconduct has focused on adult prison inmates. As a result, little is known about the factors related to misconduct among state-committed delinquents. This article examined the institutional misconduct of 4,684 state-committed delinquents released from a large Southern juvenile correctional system. Males, non-Whites, gang members and/or those with gang-related family members, and those with earlier, more serious, and more extensive delinquent histories were significantly more likely to engage in serious forms of institutional misconduct. These predictors were consistent for the model examining a less serious but disruptive form of institutional misconduct, with the exception that race, sex, and gang membership failed to be significant. The analyses also indicate that the determinants of misconduct for males may differ for state-committed females. This article concludes with suggestions for future research on institutional misconduct involving state-committed delinquents.

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Blackburn, A.G., Mullings, J.L., Marquart, J.W., & Trulson, C.R. (2007). The Next Generation of Prisoners: Toward an Understanding of Violent Institutionalized Delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 35-56.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Violent behavior by juveniles, along with the juvenile incarceration rate, has been on the decline in the past several years. Despite these declines, institutionalized juveniles, particularly violent offenders, constitute the population most at risk of becoming the next generation of adult prisoners. Using a sample of youth incarcerated in the Texas Youth Commission (TYC), this article first examines gender differences among numerous self-report measures including but not limited to violence, maltreatment, life stress, and depression. Next, multivariate analysis revealed that age, minority status, substance dependency, life stress, and gang membership were significantly related to violent offending. Analyses also revealed that numerous variables were related to depression among incarcerated male and female delinquents. This article ends with a discussion of policy implications for incarcerated delinquents.

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Kempf-Leonard, K. (2007). Minority Youths and Juvenile Justice: Disproportionate Minority Contact After Nearly 20 Years of Reform Efforts. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 71-87.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This article describes the current status of minority youths in juvenile justice systems. With nearly 20 years of federal support, there has been considerable research attention to identifying, explaining, and reducing the disproportionate minority contact with juvenile justice systems. Although progress is evident, the achievements of the Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) initiative have made it clear that the questions are more complicated than initially appeared. The answers do not appear in simple comparisons of youths by race but require "similarly situated" youths who differ only by minority status. Assuring that youths are similarly situated requires knowing their status on many complex and interrelated factors that exist across multiple levels of individuals, families, communities, and juvenile justice systems. The ways in which DMC can be reduced also require addressing parity in opportunities and expectations, both in the community and throughout juvenile justice systems.

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Jeffords, C.R. (2007). Gaining Approval From a Juvenile Correctional Agency to Conduct External Research: The Perspective of a Gatekeeper. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 88-99.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
There is little to no literature concerning effective ways to obtain approval from criminal or juvenile justice agencies to conduct external research. This article presents the results of a survey of state juvenile correctional research departments by the research director of a state juvenile correctional agency with the responsibility of reviewing external research proposals. The survey focused on factors that may impact the probability of research approval or rejection. Survey results reveal that "getting in" to conduct external research in juvenile correctional agencies may be conditioned by several factors including but not limited to the subject of research, the researcher himself or herself, and perhaps most important, the potential impact the research will have on the agency.

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Honkatukia, P., Leo Nyqvist, L., & Pösö, T. (2006). Violence from Within the Reform School. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 328-344.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This article examines young people's talk of violence to highlight the meanings of violence. Violence is approached as a fluid concept with multiple meanings. The empirical data consist of 15 focus group interviews of young people (38 young people between 12 and 17 years of age) in two Finnish reform schools carried out by two interviewers in each session. The interviews looked at the young residents' views on violence in general and on the reform schools in particular. The analysis focuses on the narrative means that the young people employed to describe violence: violence either as an instrumental means or as a form of expression. The collective nature of violence was emphasized. The results suggest that it is important to identify the multiple meanings assigned to violence for the needs of social and criminal policy and of research.

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Wells, J.B., Minor, K.I., Angel, E., & Stearman, K.D. (2006). A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of a Shock Incarceration and Aftercare Program for Juvenile Offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 219-233.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Research conducted to date has not shown juvenile shock incarceration (boot camp) programs to favorably affect recidivism. The authors extend the literature by comparing the recidivism of juveniles who completed a shock incarceration program that included a systematic aftercare phase with recidivism among a matched control group of juveniles released from more traditional residential placements. Findings were mixed as regards recidivism at 4-, 8-, and 12-month follow-ups. There were no differences in reconvictions at 8-or 12-month follow-ups and no differences in reoffense seriousness across time frames. However, a significantly lower proportion of the boot camp group recidivated during the initial 4-month aftercare phase, and at 12 months, a lower proportion had been recommitted to residential placements. Older juveniles had significantly higher recidivism scores than did younger ones. The findings demonstrate the importance of combining shock incarceration with quality aftercare.

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Russell, K.C. (2006). Evaluating the Effects of the Wendigo Lake Expedition Program on Young Offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 185-203.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This study reports an evaluative case study of Wendigo Lake Expeditions (WLE), a continuous intake, open custody program for young offenders that uses a positive youth development approach. Four objectives guided the case study: (a) describe and illustrate WLE's approach to working with adjudicated youth, (b) identify and report perceptions of the program and process, (c) assess changes in their well-being utilizing the Youth-Outcome Questionnaire (Y-OQ), and (d) track postprogram recidivism rates. Results indicated a significant improvement in youth well-being indicated by significant score reductions on the Y-OQ. Of the 40 youths contacted at the follow-up assessment, 21 (53%) had been charged with a criminal offense during this period, including those charged for administrative offences such as breaching conditions of probation, whereas 19 (47%) had not been charged. Implications of positive youth development programming for adjudicated youth are discussed.

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Trulson, C.R., Marquart, J.W., Mullings, J.L., & Caeti, T.J. (2005). In Between Adolescence and Adulthood: Recidivism Outcomes of a Cohort of State Delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 355-387.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
This research examines the recidivism outcomes of 2,436 serious, violent, and chronic youth released from a juvenile correctional system. This group of state delinquents was followed for 5 years after their release to parole as they made the transition to young adulthood. Results of the analysis revealed that 85% of state delinquents were rearrested at least once in the follow-up period, and nearly 80% were rearrested for a felony. Generally, males, those younger at first contact with the juvenile justice system, those with a greater number of felony adjudications, gang members, institutional dangers, those in poverty, and those with mental health issues were significantly more likely to recidivate. The analyses indicate that the factors that would explain recidivism for male state delinquents may differ for female state delinquents. This article concludes with a discussion of policy implications specific to this highly select but disproportionately problematic group of delinquent offenders.

Section VII: The Future of Juvenile Justice

Rodriguez, N. (2007). Restorative Justice at Work: Examining the Impact of Restorative Justice Resolutions on Juvenile Recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 53, 355-379.
http://cad.sagepub.com

Abstract
Programs with restorative justice ideals attempt to incorporate victims and community members into the administration of justice. Although these programs have become increasingly popular, only a few programs in the United States have been the focus of prior studies. Using official juvenile court data from an urban, metropolitan area, this study finds that juveniles who participated in a restorative justice program were less likely to recidivate than juveniles in a comparison group. Also, gender and prior offenses indirectly influence recidivism in important ways. Girls and offenders with minimal criminal history records exhibit the most success from participating in such programs. Findings demonstrate the importance of examining additive and interactive effects in restorative justice research.

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Mears, D.P & A. Butts, J.A. (2008). Using Performance Monitoring to Improve the Accountability, Operations, and Effectiveness of Juvenile Justice. Criminal Justice Policy Review,19, 264-284.
http://cjp.sagepub.com

Abstract
The juvenile justice system has been transformed in recent years with a range of policies designed to hold youth accountable, but how does society hold this system accountable? Calls for governmental accountability are common, yet few jurisdictions can provide comprehensive information about the basic operations of juvenile justice and the effectiveness of system reforms. Most elements of the juvenile justice system operate on faith—managers and policy makers have to assume that their programs are based on sound evidence and that reform efforts are fully implemented with fidelity to their designs. Performance monitoring provides a way to address this situation, but it is unlikely to occur without a substantial commitment of resources. This article describes performance measurement and monitoring; their relevance for improving the accountability, operations, and effectiveness of juvenile justice; and three examples of how the techniques are currently being applied in the United States.

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Benekos, P.J., & Merlo, A.V. (2008). Juvenile Justice: The Legacy of Punitive Policy. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 28-46.
http://yvj.sagepub.com

Abstract
Although the future of juvenile justice policy is uncertain, the impact of policies from the 1990s is clear: Despite declining juvenile crime rates, the adultification of youth continues to include punitive and exclusionary sanctions. Attitudes toward offenders are ambivalent, but there is evidence that legislators and the public are reluctant to abandon the punitive policies of the 1990s. Simultaneously, there are indications of more enlightened approaches to juvenile justice. In this context, the authors review the state of juvenile justice policy and review trends in waiver and sentencing.

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