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Learning from SAGE Research Articles Looking for some interesting research to review? You'll find it here! The following articles illustrate key concepts introduced throughout Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches, 3rd Edition. Review questions are listed for each chapter. Links are provided to abstracts of the research and to the full text of the articles, as well as to each journal's home page on the SAGE website. Chapter 1: Autonomy, Belonging, and Competency for Children QUESTIONS FOR EACH ARTICLE:
Chapter 1: Autonomy, Belonging, and Competency for Children Osterman, K.F. (2000). Students' Need for Belonging in the School Community. Review of Educational Research, 70 (3), 323-367. Abstract Defining sense of community as a feeling of belongingness within a group, this article reviews research about students' sense of acceptance within the school community to address three questions: Is this experience of belongingness important in an educational setting? Do students currently experience school as a community? And how do schools influence students' sense of community? Conceptually, the review reflects a social cognitive perspective on motivation. This theoretical framework maintains that individuals have psychological needs, that satisfaction of these needs affects perception and behavior, and that characteristics of the social context influence how well these needs are met. The concern here is how schools, as social organizations, address what is defined as a basic psychological need, the need to experience belongingness. The findings suggest that students' experience of acceptance influences multiple dimensions of their behavior but that schools adopt organizational practices that neglect and may actually undermine students' experience of membership in a supportive community. Farrell, T.S.C. (1999). The Reflective Assignment: Unlocking Pre-Service English Teachers' Beliefs On Grammar Teaching. RELC Journal, 30(3), 1-17. Abstract Recently, there has been a call for teacher education programs to acknowledge student teachers' prior knowledge and personal understandings as having an influential role in developing them as teachers. This is important because in many countries around the world, the method of teaching English has changed over the years from an emphasis on overt grammar instruction in the past to a more communicative approach in recent times. However, many pre-service teachers have been educated in English by traditional methods of drill and memorization of grammar rules. So there can be a mismatch between what the students have learned in the past and what they are presented in the teacher education program. An important question then arises as to how these prior experiences, often tacit, can be made more conscious and integrated into the curriculum. This paper shows how pre-service teachers' beliefs in Singapore were unlocked by the use of a three-part reflective assignment. The paper starts with a brief discussion of teachers' beliefs. Next, the study is outlined, including the course, the assignment and the student teachers' past experiences. Finally, the student teachers' reflections of their actual teaching experiences are outlined and discussed. Bondy, E., Ross, D.D., Gallingane, C., & Hambacher, E. (2007). Creating Environments of Success and Resilience: Culturally Responsive Classroom Management and More. Urban Education, 42, 326-348. Abstract Creating safe and productive environments with a diverse student population requires more than the strategies recommended in the original classroom-management literature. Drawing from the literature on culturally responsive classroom management, psychologically supportive classroom environments, and building resilience, the authors describe the practices used by three effective novice teachers in urban elementary classrooms during the first 2 hours of the first day of school. The study was based on videotape and interview data that were qualitatively analyzed using an inductive approach. The novice teachers focused on developing relationships and establishing expectations through the use of "insistence" and a culturally responsive communication style. The study provides clear pictures of the ways in which teachers teach and insist on respectful behavior and establish a caring, task-focused community. As such, it demonstrates how teachers create environments of success and resilience for students who have historically floundered in school. Chapter 2: Creating Democratic Communities Ross, D.D., & Yeager, E. (1999). What Does Democracy Mean to Prospective Elementary Teachers? Journal of Teacher Education, 50, 255-266 Abstract No abstract available Nores, M., Belfield, C.R., Barnett, W.S., & Schweinhart, L. (2005). Updating the Economic Impacts of the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 27, 245-261. Abstract This article derives an updated cost-benefit ratio for the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program, an intensive preschool intervention delivered during the 1960s to at-risk children in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Because children were randomly assigned to the program or a control group, differences in outcomes are probably attributable to program status. Data on outcome differences is now available on participants as they reached the age of 40; outcomes include educational attainment, earnings, criminal activity, and welfare receipt. These outcomes are rendered in money terms and compared to the costs of delivering the program to calculate the net present value of the program both for participants and for society. The data show strong advantages for the treatment group in terms of higher lifetime earnings and lower criminal activity. For the general public, gains in tax revenues, lower expenditures on criminal justice, lower victim costs, and lower welfare payments easily outweigh program costs. At a 3% discount rate the program repays $12.90 for every $1 invested from the perspective of the general public; with a 7% discount rate, the repayment per dollar is $5.67. Returns are even higher if the total benefits both public and private are counted. However, there are strong differences by gender: a large proportion of the gains from the program come from lower criminal activity rates by the treatment group, almost all of which is undertaken by the males in the sample. The implications of these findings for public policy on early childhood education are considered. Horsch, P., Chen, J., & Wagner, S. (2002). The Responsive Classroom Approach: A Caring, Respectful School Environment as a Context for Development. Education and Urban Society, 34, 365-383. Abstract Most classrooms have students with behavioral problems, but such students tend to be more prevalent in low-income urban neighborhoods, and teachers in these schools often do not have adequate training or resources to address the children's social-emotional needs. During the Schools Project a partnership between the Erikson Institute and nine public schools in low-income Chicago neighborhoods some of the partner schools addressed this dilemma by implementing the Responsive Classroom approach, created by the Northeast Foundation for Children to support students' social-emotional development. No other intervention during the project ended up looking so different from school to school. At one extreme, an entire school community was transformed. At the other extreme, a school came to see the approach as an ivory-tower program unsuited for inner-city children. This article briefly describes the Responsive Classroom approach and conveys the range of implementation experiences in the Schools Project through four case histories. Chapter 3: Motivation and Classroom Management Broussard, S.C., & Garrison, M.E.B. (2004). The Relationship Between Classroom Motivation and Academic Achievement in Elementary-School-Aged Children. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 33, 106-120. Abstract The relationship between motivation and academic success has been better established with older children and adults than with younger children. As part of a larger project, the purpose of this study was to examine the relation-ship between classroom motivation and academic achievement in young elementary-school-aged children. The participants were 122 first-grade and 129 third-grade children from a mid-sized city in the southern United States. The findings from the current study were consistent with previous research in that higher levels of mastery motivation and judgment motivation were found to be related to higher math and reading grades in third graders. However, higher levels of mastery motivation, not judgment motivation, were related to higher math and reading grades in first graders. Prigge, D.J. (2002). Promote Brain-Based Teaching and Learning. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37, 237-241. Abstract Setting up a successful classroom is one of the most important tasks educators undertake. The goal is to create an environment where all students can learn and thrive. The education community (helped by research that is identifying brain regions and the processes that are involved in learning) is beginning to recognize the importance of applying cognitive and neuroscience research and theory in the learning process. This information has direct implications for classroom practice. As we gain a better understanding of the learning process, we can make more informed decisions about how to structure teaching and learning. To get you started, here are some suggestions based on what is currently known about the brain. Littlejohn, A. (2008). The Tip of the Iceberg: Factors Affecting Learner Motivation. RELC Journal, 39, 214-225. Abstract Teachers' informal discussions of learner motivation often emphasize the need to find ways to motivate learners, most usually through 'fun' or 'dynamic' activities. This paper starts from the assumption, however, that part of the work of the teacher is to avoid the demotivation of learners, and that there is a need to consider the overall structural organization of teaching and learning, not just the kinds of activities which learners do. The paper reviews four factors significant in affecting learner motivation: the locus of control, a sense of value and purpose, self-esteem, and feelings of success. These concepts are then used to interpret interview data from two school-aged learners. The causes of their apathetic reaction to English classes are explained by reference to these factors, as evidenced by how they describe the nature and purposes of the activities they do. They appear to see their classes as mainly consisting of `exercises', free of any memorable content. It is suggested that they experience their classes as `endlessly contemporary', with no clear sense of a past, present or future and that that, combined with a lack of involvement in classroom decisions, conspires to produce learners who simply comply because they are required to do so. Chapter 4: Pedagogical Structures for Managing Learning Goodwin, M.W. (1999). Cooperative Learning and Social Skills: What Skills to Teach and How to Teach Them. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35, 29-33. Abstract Cooperative learning strategies can be successful with students of all ages, learning styles, and ethnic backgrounds. However, students who have never been taught the prerequisite social skills cannot be expected to work together effectively. This article links cooperative learning arrangements with social skills instruction to accelerate student learning and to improve students' social relationships. Siciliano, J.I. (2001). How to Incorporate Cooperative Learning Principles in the Classroom: It's More Than Just Putting Students in Teams. Journal of Management Education, 255, 8-20. Abstract This article describes how to structure team assignments using a cooperative learning framework. With examples from a classroom situation, it provides techniques for creating an environment where teams achieve mutual goals and group rewards and where members are responsible for doing their share of the work and for mastery of the material to be learned. Qin, Z., Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1995). Cooperative Versus Competitive Efforts and Problem Solving. Review of Educational Research, 65, 129-143. Abstract The impacts of cooperative and competitive efforts on problem solving were compared. In order to resolve the controversy over whether cooperation promotes higher- or lower-quality individual problem solving than does competition, 46 studies, published between 1929 and 1993, were examined. The findings from these studies were classified in 4 categories according to the type of problem solving measured: linguistic (solved through written and oral language), nonlinguistic (solved through symbols, math, motor activities, actions), well-defined (having clearly defined operations and solutions), and ill-defined (lacking clear definitions, operations, and solutions). The 63 relevant findings that resulted were subjected to a meta-analysis for purposes of integration. Members of cooperative teams outperformed individuals competing with each other on all 4 types of problem solving (effect sizes = 0.37, 0.72, 0.52, 0.60, respectively). These results held for individuals of all ages and for studies of high, medium, and low quality. The superiority of cooperation, however, was greater on nonlinguistic than on linguistic problems.
Sanacore, J. (1999). Encouraging Children to Make Choices About Their Literacy Learning. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35, 38-42. Abstract The professional literature, as well as practical experience, suggests that students need opportunities to gain a sense of self-determination. Both at-risk children and their nondisabled peers benefit from making choices during every school day, especially in the context of literacy learning. Educators can encourage the development of decision making by demonstrating how to select appropriate reading materials, by providing time for reading immersion, by reading aloud a wide variety of resources, and by fostering the use of tape-recorded books. Classroom teachers and special educators who support these and similar approaches are increasing students' chances of being successful with their literacy-learning choices. Although not a cure-all, exposure to daily decision making nurtures students' personal and academic growth and simultaneously enriches them in ways that will last a lifetime. Green, L. (2005). Two Birds with One Stone: Teaching Reading and Teaching Thinking. Psychology International, 26, 109-120. Abstract The aim of this article is to illustrate how the teaching of thinking can be incorporated into regular teaching, using the teaching of reading as an example. It provides a brief overview of current understandings of the processes of learning to read and learning to think and then considers how noticing, naming, comparing, categorizing, connecting, generalizing and remembering, which are just some of the many cognitive processes refined as children develop, can be explicitly mediated in the course of teaching reading. It makes a final proviso that this mediation can only be effective in a supportive learning climate in which cognitive dispositions are valued and nurtured. Isaksen, S.G., & Gaulin, J.P. (2005). A Reexamination of Brainstorming Research: Implications for Research and Practice. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 315-329. Abstract Brainstorming may be the best-known tool for group idea generation and is widely taught in gifted and talented programs. Many empirical studies have been conducted regarding the effectiveness of brainstorming, and they have provided useful insights into the salient barriers facing groups who use this tool. Although a great deal of this literature focuses on the limitations of brainstorming, the exploratory study included in this article sheds light on approaches that can enhance the value of this tool by examining the impact of the facilitator's role within group idea generation. Finally, this article outlines recommendations for teaching, learning, and applying brainstorming.
Nickolite, A., & Doll, B. (2008). Resilience Applied in School: Strengthening Classroom Environments for Learning. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 23, 94-113. Abstract Despite the widespread acceptance of ecological models of child development, the tools and strategies underlying school psychological practice emphasize individual characteristics of children. This article describes ClassMaps Consultation, a consultation strategy that assesses the availability of protective factors and risk in school classrooms and supports interventions to strengthen these so that more students in the classroom are successful. Three underpinnings of ClassMaps Consultation are described: (a) a conceptual framework, (b) a strategy for describing and measuring the ecological characteristics of classrooms, and (c) intervention strategies that target the classroom in lieu of individual students. Then, a case example is provided to illustrate the use of ClassMaps Consultation in two classrooms. Finally, implications for school psychological practice that promotes children's resilience and psychological wellness are presented. Palmer, S.B., & Wehmeyer, M.L. (2003). Promoting Self-Determination in Early Elementary School: Teaching Self-Regulated Problem-Solving and Goal-Setting Skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 115-126. Abstract Problem solving and goal setting are important components of self-determination that young people learn over time. This study describes and validates a model of teaching in early elementary grades that teachers can use to infuse these activities into existing curricula and programs. Can young children set goals for learning using the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction, and can teachers implement this model in a variety of subjects and settings with students having diverse learning needs? Our results show that even the youngest students (ages 5 6) were able to set goals and use the model to achieve. Teachers used the model effectively to support the investigation of student interests, the facilitation of choices, and the goal setting and attainment of young children. Scott, V.G. (2006). Incorporating Service Learning Into Your Special Education Classroom. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 25-29. Abstract In service learning, students learn skills and apply their knowledge while addressing an identified community need. Service learning is especially powerful in special education as students with disabilities are allowed the opportunity to give, instead of receive, help and support, and therefore gain independence and self-esteem. This article outlines the steps involved in implementing a service learning project within a special education classroom.
Wadsworth, D.F.D., & Knight, D. (1999). Preparing the Inclusion Classroom for Students with Special Physical and Health Needs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34, 170-175. Abstract The Classroom Ecological Preparation Inventory (CEPI) is a vehicle designed to assist the instructional team in gathering critical information for the successful inclusion of students with physical impairments and health needs in the general education classroom. The CEPI focuses on health-related issues and medical concerns, arrangement of the physical environment, assistive equipment, instructional adaptations, and social skills management. Each of these issues is discussed briefly, followed by a case study and a sample of CEPI. Harrower, J.K., & Dunlap, G. (2001). Including Children with Autism in General Education Classrooms: A Review of Effective Strategies. Behavior Modification, 25, 762-784. Abstract Children with autism can benefit from participation in inclusive classroom environments, and many experts assert that inclusion is a civil right and is responsible for nurturing appropriate social development. However, most children with autism require specialized supports to experience success in these educational contexts. This article provides a review of the empirical research that has addressed procedures for promoting successful inclusion of students with autism. Strategies reviewed include antecedent manipulations, delayed contingencies, self-management, peer-mediated interventions, and other approaches that have been demonstrated in the literature to be useful. The article concludes with a discussion of future research needs. Verdugo, R.R., & Flores, B. (2007). English-Language Learners: Key Issues. Education and Urban Society, 39, 167-193. Abstract Since its inception, America's system of public education has faced many challenges. One of its more important challenges has been how to teach children from diverse backgrounds and cultures. As a society that prides itself on a democratic ideology, cultural diversity and schooling are not trivial issues. One of the more significant diversity topics has been the presence of English-language learners (ELL) in American public schools. This article introduces the topic of ELL students and the education and education-related issues surrounding ELL students. For researchers and policy makers deeply steeped in the issues surrounding ELL students, the issues and concerns raised in this article are familiar. However, for the vast majority of other researchers and policy makers, these issues are not familiar and may have important impact on their own research agendas.
Forgan, J.W. (2002). Using Bibliotherapy to Teach Problem Solving. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, 75-82. Abstract Students with high-incidence disabilities (e.g., specific learning disabilities, behavioral disorders, mild mental retardation) can benefit from using bibliotherapy by learning how to become proactive problem solvers. Often students with high-incidence disabilities are characterized as inefficient in recognizing and solving problems. By learning a problem-solving strategy and applying it to children's literature titles, students with disabilities can learn to become independent and effective problem solvers. Gregory, K.E., & Vessey, J.A. (2004). Bibliotherapy: A Strategy to Help Students with Bullying. The Journal of School Nursing, 20, 127-133. Abstract Use of bibliotherapy to address childhood teasing and bullying is an innovative approach school nurses should consider as they work to promote a healthy school environment. Children's books serve as a unique conduit of exchange between parents, teachers, and children. Bibliotherapy, using books to help people solve problems, involves three stages: identification, catharsis, and insight. These stages lend themselves well to coping with the sensitivities related to teasing and bullying. Salient research findings pertinent to teasing and bullying have made their way into the children's literature and have been well received by children and their families over the course of the Child Adolescent Teasing in Schools (CATS) book review project and web site development. After exposure to a fictional story about teasing and bullying, children have shared their own nonfictional account of this often devastating experience and have come to develop successful coping strategies for dealing with the teasing and bullying that takes place in schools nationwide. Prater, M.A., Dyches, T.T., & Johnstun, M. (2006). Teaching Students About Learning Disabilities Through Children's Literature. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 14-24. Abstract Children's literature often portrays characters with disabilities. These books may be used to promote awareness, understanding, and acceptance of those with disabilities. We provide guidelines for selecting high-quality literature and ideas for using characterizations of learning disabilities to teach students about themselves and others. Two sample lesson plans and a list of 30 recommended books are included.
De Gaetano, Y. (2007). The Role of Culture in Engaging Latino Parents' Involvement in School. Urban Education, 42, 145-162. Abstract One of the critical issues for schools is how to actively involve Latino parents in the schooling process. Although Latino parents are often marginalized in schools due to race, class, and cultural differences, many school personnel suspect Latino parents of not caring about their children's education. This article highlights how a small group of educators working together in a project actively enlisted the participation of Latino parents in schools through a positive and consistent focus on their own cultures. The author suggests that teacher preparation programs explore the power of a culturally relevant approach to working with parents. Conderman, G., Ikan, P.A., & Hatcher, R.E. (2000). Student-Led Conferences in Inclusive Settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 22-26. Abstract Student-led conferences offer many advantages for students with and without disabilities and their families. When student-led conferences are coupled with the use of portfolios, students assume more responsibility for their learning and see connections among and between their learning in and outside of school. This article describes the steps and results from one school district that has adopted the student-led conference approach for all students. Renk, K., Liljequist, L., Steinberg, A., Bosco, G., & Phares, V. (2002). Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse: Are We Doing Enough? Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 3, 68-84. Abstract In response to an increase in public awareness and interest in the problem of child sexual abuse, programs have been developed to promote the awareness, prevention, and treatment of sexual abuse. These programs have been varied in scope, focus, and effectiveness. This article reviews the child sexual abuse literature, with particular emphasis on efforts aimed at the prevention of child sexual abuse. Prevention efforts targeting potential victims as well as parents, teachers, and offenders, are reviewed and evaluated. Overall, there is not enough adequate work being done to prevent child sexual abuse. More efforts need to address child sexual abuse prevention by targeting adults who can help children avoid such an experience and adults who may perpetrate against children. Suggestions about future preventive endeavors, based on this review, are offered.
Wadsworth, D.F.D., & Knight, D. (1999). Preparing the Inclusion Classroom for Students with Special Physical and Health Needs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34, 170-175. Abstract The Classroom Ecological Preparation Inventory (CEPI) is a vehicle designed to assist the instructional team in gathering critical information for the successful inclusion of students with physical impairments and health needs in the general education classroom. The CEPI focuses on health-related issues and medical concerns, arrangement of the physical environment, assistive equipment, instructional adaptations, and social skills management. Each of these issues is discussed briefly, followed by a case study and a sample of CEPI. Hadjioannou, X. (2007). Bringing the Background to the Foreground: What Do Classroom Environments That Support Authentic Discussions Look Like? American Educational Research Journal, 44, 370-399. Abstract Authentic discussions are dialogically oriented classroom interactions where participants present and consider multiple perspectives and often use others' input in constructing their contributions. Despite their instructional effectiveness, authentic discussions are reportedly rare in classrooms. This qualitative case study examines the features of the environment of a fifth-grade classroom community where authentic discussions were frequent. The examination used recorded class sessions, interviews, and field notes to identify seven aspects of the classroom environment that appeared to be essential to the presence of authentic discussions: physical environment, curricular demands and enacted curriculum, teacher beliefs, student beliefs about discussions, relationships among members, classroom procedures, and norms of classroom participation. Lawry, J., Danko, C.D., & Strain, P.S. (2000). Examining the Role of the Classroom Environment in the Prevention of Problem Behaviors. Young Exceptional Children, , 11-19. Abstract No abstract available
Pellegrini, A.D., Huberty, P.D., & Jones, I. (1995). The Effects of Recess Timing on Children's Playground and Classroom Behaviors. American Education Research Journal, 32, 845-864. Abstract Three field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of different recess timing regimens on children's classroom and recess behaviors. Experiment 1 involved children in Grades K, 2, and 4. The timing of their recess was experimentally varied by 30 minutes. Students' classroom behavior before and after recess was observed as was their outdoor recess behavior. Children's prerecess inattention varied as a function of deprivation duration. Further, children, but especially boys, were more socially interactive on the playground following the long deprivation, compared to the short deprivation. Recess behaviors did not relate significantly to postrecess inattention. However, inattention rates were higher before recess than after. Experiment 2 utilized a similar paradigm with a sample of second and fourth graders from the same school. Experiment 2, generally, replicated results from Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, which utilized a replication sample design, children s recess was also manipulated, but the recess period was indoors. Results of the two samples replicated each other and the preceding experiments. Results are discussed in terms of play deprivation theory and massed versus distributed practice. Chalmers, L., Olson, M.R., & Zurkowski, J.K. (1999). Music as a Classroom Tool. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35, 43-52. Abstract This article describes a study of the effects of playing music in an elementary school lunch-room. Outcomes were generally positive, and the authors discuss the implications and suggest approaches for implementing use of music as a classroom tool. Russell, M., Bebell, D., O'Dwyer, L., & O'Connor, K. (2003). Examining Teacher Technology Use: Implications for Preservice and Inservice Teacher Preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 54, 297-310. Abstract As access to computer-based technology in schools and classrooms increases, greater emphasis has been placed on preparing teachers to use technology for instructional purposes. Survey data collected from 2,894 teachers in 22 Massachusetts districts were analyzed to examine the extent to which technology is used in and out of the classroom for instructional purposes. In addition to defining six specific categories of instructional use of technology, this study provides evidence that teachers generally use technology more for preparation and communication than for delivering instruction or assigning learning activities that require the use of technology. Important differences, however, were found among teachers who were new to the field compared with their more experienced colleagues. Although new teachers reported higher levels of comfort with technology and use it more for preparation, more experienced teachers report using technology more often in the classroom when delivering instruction or having students engage in learning activities.
Kardos, S.M., Johnson, S.M., Peske, H.G., Kauffman, D., & Liu, E. (2001). Counting on Colleagues: New Teachers Encounter the Professional Cultures of Their Schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 37, 250-290. Abstract Within the context of an impending teacher shortage, this article considers the professional cultures that new teachers encounter in their schools. Using new entrants' accounts, we characterized three types of professional cultures or subcultures within schools: veteran-oriented cultures, novice-oriented cultures, and integrated cultures. In veteran-oriented cultures, new teachers described norms of professional interaction determined, in large part, by the veterans, with little attention to the particular needs of beginning teachers. In novice-oriented cultures, on the other hand, new teachers described norms of professional interaction determined by novices, thus leaving them with little experienced guidance about how to teach. However, in integrated professional cultures, new teachers described being provided with sustained support and having frequent exchanges with colleagues across experience levels. Principals proved to be important in developing and maintaining integrated professional cultures where the particular needs of new teachers were both recognized and addressed. Hill, H.C., Rowen, B., & Ball, D.L. (2005). Effects of Teachers' Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching on Student Achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 2, 371-406. Abstract This study explored whether and how teachers' mathematical knowledge for teaching contributes to gains in students' mathematics achievement. The authors used a linear mixed-model methodology in which first and third graders' mathematical achievement gains over a year were nested within teachers, who in turn were nested within schools. They found that teachers' mathematical knowledge was significantly related to student achievement gains in both first and third grades after controlling for key student- and teacher-level covariates. This result, while consonant with findings from the educational production function literature, was obtained via a measure focusing on the specialized mathematical knowledge and skills used in teaching mathematics. This finding provides support for policy initiatives designed to improve students' mathematics achievement by improving teachers' mathematical knowledge. Berliner, D.C. (2000). A Personal Response to Those Who Bash Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(5), 358-371. Abstract To each of a dozen common charges against formal programs of teacher education a personal response is made. Among other responses, it is argued that contextual knowledge of classrooms and schools is crucial for novice teachers; raw intelligence is insufficient for accomplished teaching; and as in other fields, accomplished performance will develop—if it ever develops—only over many years of effortful, deliberate practice. It is argued that programs of teacher education can offer the novice teacher the findings, concepts, principles, technologies, and theories from educational research that are relevant to teaching and learning, as they are provided to other professionals before they enter their fields of practice. It is concluded that high-quality teacher education programs are profoundly challenging, indispensable, inaugural components in the development of accomplished performance by teachers.
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