Study Site for The Group in Society
John Gastil


Learning from Journal Articles

Note: Click on each link to expand and view the content then click again to collapse.

Chapter 1: Small Groups Up Close

Carron, A. V., Brawley, L. R., Eys, M. A., Bray, S., Dorsch, K., Estabrooks, P., Hall, C. R., Hardy, J., Hausenblas, H., Madison, R., Paskevich, D., Patterson, M. M., Prapavessis, H., Spink, K. S., & Terry, P. C. (2003). Do individual perceptions of group cohesion reflect shared beliefs?: An empirical analysis. Small Group Research, 34, 468-496.

Abstract:
This study's primary purpose was to examine the degree to which individual perceptions of cohesiveness reflect shared beliefs in sport teams. The secondary purposes were to examine how the type of cohesion, the task interactive nature of the group, and the absolute level of cohesion relate to the index of agreement. Teams (n = 192 containing 2,107 athletes) were tested on the Group Environment Questionnaire. Index of agreement values were greater for the group integration (GI) manifestations of cohesiveness (GI-task, rwg(j) = .721; GI-social,rwg(j) = .694) than for the individual attractions to the group (ATG) manifestations (ATG-task, rwg(j) = .621; ATG-social, rwg(j) = .563). No differences were found for interactive versus coactive/independent sport teams. A positive relationship was observed between the absolute level of cohesiveness and the index of agreement. Results were discussed in terms of their implication for the aggregation of individual perceptions of cohesion to represent the group construct.

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DeLamater, J. (1974). A definition of "group." Small Group Research, 5, 30 - 44.

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Frey, L. R. (1994). The naturalistic paradigm: Studying small groups in the postmodern era. Small Group Research, 25, 551-577.

Abstract:
This article advocates the need to balance group research by rejecting the dominant paradigm that drives research-positivism--and adopting an alternative paradigm-the naturalistic paradigm. After critiquing positivistic group research, the philosophical assumptions and methodological practices of the naturalistic paradigm as they apply to small group research-the research setting, type of natural group, research foci, methodological procedures, and researchers' relationship with members of natural groups-are described. The author 's research program on creating and sustaining community in an AIDS residential facility is used to illustrate the conduct of naturalistic group research and the rich insights that can be obtained about group process. The article concludes that the naturalistic paradigm and its practices potentially can infuse group research with a renewed sense of purpose and urgency.

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Hoyle, R. H., & Crawford, A. M. (1994). Use of individual-level data to investigate group phenomena: Issues and strategies. Small Group Research, 25, 464-485.

Abstract:
Researchers who investigate group phenomena can choose either the group as a whole or individuals within groups as a basis for formulating research questions, developing datagathering strategies, and conducting statistical analyses. This article considers the virtues and limitations of using individual-level data to investigate group phenomena and describes three categories of research questions about individuals in groups: (a) the contribution of group members to the composition of the group, (b) individuals'experience of belonging to the group, and (c) the impact of group membership on group members' personal life. The authors describe two examples from research on cohesion that addresses questions about individuals 'experience of belonging to groups and the impact of group membership on their personal life. We conclude by noting the limitations of the approach we advocate and mapping directions for future research suggested by our emphasis on individual-level analysis of small-group phenomena.

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Wittenbaum, G. M., Keyton, J., & Weingart, L. R. (2006). A new era for group research: The formation of INGRoup. Small Group Research, 37, 575-581.

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Chapter 2: Wiring Groups into Organizations and Society

Berends, H., Boersma, K., & Weggeman, M. (2003). The structuration of organizational learning. Human Relations, 56, 1035 - 1056.

Abstract:
Although it is currently common to speak of organizational learning, this notion is still surrounded by conceptual confusion. It is unclear how notions like learning, knowledge and cognitive activities can be applied to organizations. Some authors have tried to unravel the conceptual and ontological problems by giving an account of the role of individuals in organizational learning. However, this has not yet led to an agreed upon analysis. In this article we use structuration theory to overcome the dualism of individual and organization in organizational learning. We support, illustrate and elaborate our structurationist perspective by an ethnographic and historical study of an industrial research laboratory. We show how organizational learning evolves from distributed social practices, creatively realized by knowledgeable individuals, and illustrate how these practices are enabled and constrained by existing structure.

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Heracleous, L., & Hendry, J. (2000). Discourse and the study of organization: Toward a structurational perspective. Human Relations, 53, 1251-1286.

Abstract:
Existing approaches to organizational discourse, which we label as 'managerialist', 'interpretive' and 'critical', either privilege agency at the expense of structure or the other way around. This tension reflects that between approaches to discourse in the social sciences more generally but is sharper in the organizational context, where discourse is typically temporally and contextually specific and imbued with attributions of instrumental intent. As the basis for a more sophisticated understanding of organizational discourse, we draw on the work of Giddens to develop a structurational conceptualization in which discourse is viewed as a duality of communicative actions and structural properties, recursively linked through the modality of actors' interpretive schemes. We conclude by exploring some of the theoretical implications of this conceptualization and its consequences for the methodology of organizational discourse analysis.

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Houston, R. (1999). Self-organizing systems theory: historical challenges to new sciences. Management Communication Quarterly, 13, 119 - 134.

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Seibold, D. R., & Meyers, R. A. (2007). Group argument: A structuration perspective and research program. Small Group Research, 38, 312-336.

Abstract:
This article reviews and assesses the structuration program of research on group argument that has evolved over more than two decades. The authors first position group argument research in relationship to argument studies across many disciplines and especially at the intersection of three research traditions in communication. Acknowledging structuration theory foundations, the authors explicate their conceptualization of argument and explain the theoretical foundations of their approach. They next describe the methods that have been used to analyze group argument, including participants, data collection procedures, coding scheme and process, and contexts that have been employed in past investigations. They also survey the findings of this research program and how they have enhanced understanding of argument processes in groups and group argument—outcome linkages. The authors then offer a critique of the program, including challenges and unanswered questions. They note projects currently under way and conclude by identifying opportunities for interdisciplinary research on group argument.

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Spreitzer, G.M., Cohen, S.G., Ledford, G. E. Jr. (1999). Developing effective self-managing work teams in service organizations. Group & Organization Management, 24, 340-366.

Abstract:
A large body of research has emerged on the effective implementation of self-managing work teams (SMWTs). However, virtually all of the research has been conducted in manufacturing settings. This article draws upon the authors’research on SMWTs in two service organizations: an insurance operation and a telecommunications company. The authors focused on two research questions: First, they examined the relationships among different dimensions of SMWT effectiveness. Second, the authors explored the key success factors for SMWTs in a service context. They found that the different dimensions of SMWTs’effectiveness do not reinforce one another and are largely unrelated, and that creating an employee involvement (EI) context, work design, and team characteristics were important predictors of SMWT effectiveness. Surprisingly, team leadership was not important for SMWT effectiveness; in fact, sometimes, team leadership was negatively related to effectiveness.

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Tullar, W. L., & Kaiser, P. R. (2000). The effect of process training on process and outcomes in virtual groups. Journal of Business Communication, 37, 408 - 426.

Abstract:
Virtual groups meet via the Internet every day. When such groups confront large bodies of information in decision making, the group process often becomes con fused and chaotic. Process structuration (Giddens, 1979, 1984; Poole, Seibold, & McPhee, 1985) provides a theoretical framework by which we can understand group processes and outcomes. This study examines the effects of process struc turation by means of a training video on maintenance behavior and outcomes in 55 different student virtual decision-making groups from two universities. Results show that trained groups had higher levels of social support, greater participation rates, and greater satisfaction with the group; wasted less time and energy; and made significantly more accurate judgments. We discuss implications for the impact of this type of training on virtual groups and suggest further research.

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Tschan, F. Semmer, N. K., Gurtner, A., Bizzari, L., Spychiger, M., Breuer, M., Marsch, S. U. (2009). Explicit reasoning, confirmation bias, and illusory transactive memory: A simulation study of group medical decision making. Small Group Research, 40, 271 - 300.

Abstract:
Teamwork is important in medicine, and this includes team-based diagnoses. The influence of communication on diagnostic accuracy in an ambiguous situation was investigated in an emergency medical simulation. The situation was ambiguous in that some of the patient's symptoms suggested a wrong diagnosis. Of 20 groups of physicians, 6 diagnosed the patient, 8 diagnosed with help, and 6 missed the diagnosis. Based on models of decision making, we hypothesized that accurate diagnosis is more likely if groups (a) consider more information, (b) display more explicit reasoning, and (c) talk to the room. The latter two hypotheses were supported. Additional analyses revealed that physicians often failed to report pivotal information after reading in the patient chart. This behavior suggested to the group that the chart contained no critical information. Corresponding to a transactive memory process, this process results in what we call illusory transactive memory. The plausible but incorrect diagnosis implied that the two lungs should sound differently. Despite objectively identical sounds, some physicians did hear a difference, indicating confirmation bias. Training physicians in explicit reasoning could enhance diagnostic accuracy.

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van Mierlo, H., Rutte, C. G., Kompier, M. A. J., & Doorewaard, H. A. C. M. (2005). Self-managing teamwork and psychological well-being: Review of a multilevel research domain. Group & Organization Management, 30, 211-235.

Abstract:
In this article, we present a qualitative discussion of 28 empirical studies on self-managing team-work and psychological well-being. We address three questions: (a) Which variables did they include and which results did they obtain?; (b) How did authors deal with issues of level of theory, measurement, and analysis?; and (c) Do such level issues affect the results of the studies? This review demonstrates that only job satisfaction is consistently related to self-managing teamwork. In addition, authors often fail to specify the level of their theory, thereby impeding judgment on the appropriateness of analysis procedures. Finally, we present preliminary evidence that level issues may affect the results. We plead for the incorporation of multilevel theory
andanalysistechniquesintothefieldofself-managingteamworkandpsychologicalwell-being.

 

Chapter 3: Making Group Decisions

Boster, F. J., Hunter, J. E., & Hale, J. L. (1991). An information-processing model of jury decision making. Communication Research, 18, 524-547.

Abstract:
An experiment was designed to test a model of jury decision making. This model, the linear discrepancy model, is an information-processing model which posits that when jurors hear an argument during deliberation, they adjust their opinion toward the message. The amount of change is a linear function of the discrepancy between the opinion expressed in the message and the jurors' opinions. An unequal-speaking version of this model, contrasting the speaking frequency of the foreperson and other jury members was constructed. Trial outcomes and postdeliberation variances were predicted accurately by the model in an experiment employing impaneled jurors.

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Esteban, J., & Ray, D. (2008). Polarization, fractionalization and conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 45, 163 - 182.

Abstract:
This article provides a theoretical framework that distinguishes between the occurrence of conflict and its severity, and clarifies the role of polarization and fractionalization in each of these cases. The analysis helps in ordering the various definitions, and in providing explanations for the empirical observations on the relationship between conflict, on the one hand, and polarization or fractionalization, on the other. The behaviour of players in conflict is described as a game, and equilibrium payoffs to all players are computed. The status quo is characterized by a set of political institutions that channel the different opposing interests and turn them into a collective decision, with a second set of payoffs. Groups rebel against the status quo political institution whenever the latter set of payoffs is dominated by the former. When society is highly polarized, the potential cost of rebellion is extremely high, and this cost may serve as the guarantor of peace. So, in highly polarized societies, the occurrence of open conflict should be rare but its intensity very severe, whenever it happens. On the other hand, highly fractionalized societies are prone to the occurrence of conflict, but its intensity will be moderate. It matters, therefore, whether one studies the intensity of conflict, conditional on conflict breaking out, or the likelihood that conflict actually occurs. Specifically, it is shown that: (i) measures of fractionalization and polarization tend to run in opposite directions, (ii) the onset of conflict critically depends on the political system in place, (iii) the occurrence of conflict and the intensity of conflict also tend to move in opposite directions, (iv) the relationship between polarization or fractionalization and conflict is non-monotonic and (v) the intensity of conflict depends positively on the degree of polarization.

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Gastil, J., Burkhalter, S., & Black, L. (2007). Do juries deliberate? A Study of deliberation, individual difference, and group member satisfaction at a municipal courthouse. Small Group Research, 38, 337-359.

Abstract:
Despite long-standing interest in juries and a growing body of work on public deliberation, we have a limited understanding of how often everyday juries actually engage in meaningful deliberation. This study uses deliberative theory and small group research to develop a set of research questions and hypotheses regarding how juror characteristics promote deliberation as well as how deliberation influences juror satisfaction. Examination of 267 jurors' accounts of their experiences deliberating on municipal criminal juries suggests that juries do, indeed, deliberate at a remarkably high level of competence. Results show complex relationships between juror characteristics and their levels of deliberation as well as a direct link between the quality of deliberation and juror satisfaction.

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Gerstenfeld, P. B. (2003). Juror decision making in hate crime cases. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 14, 193 - 213.

Abstract:
Relatively little empirical research has been conducted on hate crimes. An issue that has previously remained almost entirely unexplored is what factors are likely to influence jurors' guilt determinations in hate crime cases. This article describes a mockjuror study that was conducted with 190 participants. Participants were given a hate crime vignette in which the ethnicity of the victim and offender were varied. Contrary to the original hypotheses, it was found that at least with this particular vignette, the offender's and victim's ethnicity did not usually affect the juror decisions. Furthermore, participants' level of racism was not related to their decisions on the juror task. The implications of the results are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research in this area.

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Ohtsubo, Y., Masuchi, A., & Nakanishi, D. (2002). Majority influence process in group judgment: Test of the social judgment scheme model in a group polarization context. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 5, 249 - 261.

Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to test Davis’s (1996) Social Judgment Scheme (SJS) model, which was proposed as a predictive model of group decision making with continuous alternatives. The SJS model assumes that individual group members’ influence on the group decision exponentially declines with the distance from other members’ judgments (i.e. majority influence process). Fifty-five 3-person groups engaged in eight group polarization tasks. First, the model fits of the SJS model and the Averaging model were compared in terms of the predictive accuracy. Results indicted that the SJS model yielded accurate predictions more often than the Averaging model. Second, a different analytical approach confirmed the model’s corollary—the skewness of individual judgments distribution was negatively correlated with the direction of group polarization. These findings support the model’s assumption of majority influence process in continuous alternatives tasks

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Orlitzky, M., & Hirokawa, R. Y. (2001). To err is human, to correct for it divine: A meta-analysis of research testing the functional theory of group decision-making effectiveness. Small Group Research , 32, 313-341.

Abstract:
This meta-analysis tests the functional perspective of small-group decision making, which holds that certain critical requisite functions must be satisfied for an effective group decision to be likely. The results suggest that evaluation of negative consequences of alternative solutions, problem analysis, and establishment of solution criteria (in this order) are the strongest predictors of group decision-making effectiveness. In addition, methodological study artifacts (sampling error, measurement error) and task moderators explain variability in previous findings. More specifically, the moderator subgroup analysis shows that evaluation of negative consequences is an even better predictor of group performance when task evaluation demands are high.

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VanLear, C. A., & Mabry, E. A. (1999). Testing contrasting interaction models for discriminating between consensual and dissentient decision-making groups. Small Group Research, 30, 29-58.

Abstract:
This study tested three models of group interaction for their ability to discriminate between groups that reach consensus and those that do not. Fifteen mock juries (seven hung and eight conviction) constituted the sample. Model 1, a "functional action model," successfully discriminated between consensus and hung juries based on the relative number of simple disagreements. Model 2, an "interact pattern model," successfully discriminated between consensus and hung juries based on the sequential redundancy of interaction patterns that perpetuate or resolve ambiguity, that digress from the work at hand, and that clarify or resolve conflict. Model 3, Fisher’s four phases of development, failed to discriminate between consensus and hung juries.

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Wittenbaum, G. M., Hollingshead, A. B., Paulus, P. B., Hirokawa, R. Y., Ancona, D. G., Peterson, R. S., Jehn, K. A., & Yoon, K. (2004). The functional perspective as a lens for understanding groups. Small Group Research, 35, 17-43.

Abstract:
The functional perspective is a normative approach to describing and predicting group performance that focuses on the functions of inputs and/or processes. The aim of theory and research from this perspective is to understand why some groups are successful and others are not. This article investigates theory and, to a lesser extent, research of small groups based on the functional perspective. The authors present the underlying theoretical assumptions and review theories that fit into the functional perspective from several representative areas of research. They conclude by outlining notable strengths and weaknesses associated with viewing groups from this perspective and propose some directions for future theory development.

 

Chapter 4: Establishing Discussion Procedures

Benbasat, I., & Lim, L. H. (1993). The effects of group, task, context and technology variables on the usefulness of group support systems: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Small Group Research, 24, 430-62.

Abstract:
Using meta-analytic procedures, this article quantitatively integrated the results of 31 experimental studies on the effects of Group Support System (GSS) use. A total of eight dependent variables representing performance, satisfaction, consensus, and equality of participation were investigated. The use of GSSs was found to have positive main effects on decision quality, number of alternatives generated, and equality of participation, but negative main effects in terms of time to reach decision, consensus, and satisfaction. Further analysis showed the effects to be moderated by task, group, context, and technology variables. For example, larger groups achieved betterperformance and greater satisfaction from the use of GSS than smaller groups. Groups with a formal hierarchy using GSS did worse in terms of both performance and satisfaction compared to groups without formal hierarchy. Also, the level of GSS support emerged as influential on almost all dependent variables. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for organizational use of GSS, design issues of GSS, andfuture research directions.

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Falk, G. (1982). An empirical study measuring conflict in problem-solving groups which are assigned different decision rules. Human Relations, 35, 1123-1138.

Abstract:
The paper has two goals. First, to find out whether majority rule or a unanimous decision rule would facilitate more task conflict. Second, to develop several operational measures of task conflict. The study used an experimental design using 18 groups. The group discussions were tape recorded and coded using the valence coding system (Hoffman & Maier, 1964, 1967). Eight operational measures of task conflict are presented and used to test the main hypothesis. The results indicate that in unequal power groups an assigned majority rule facilitates more task conflict than an assigned unanimous rule or no assigned decision rule. The eight measures of task conflict are shown to be useful but require additional refinement.

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Gastil, J. (1992). A definition of small group democracy. Small Group Research, 23, 278-301.

Abstract:
This article clarifies the conceptual relationship between democracy and small group processes by providing a definition of small group democracy. A small democratic group is (a) powerful and (b) inclusive, with (c) a membership that is committed to the democratic process. A fully democratic group (d) maintains healthy, democratic relationships and (e) practices a democratic form of deliberationm including equal and adequate speaking opportunities and both comprehension and consideration. The concluding section makes recommendationsforfuture research, including the suggestion that researchers integrate theories of small group behavior with theories of democratic social change.

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Murrell, A. J., Stewart, A. C., & Engel, B. T. (1993). Consensus versus devil’s advocacy: The influence of decision process and task structure on strategic decision making. Journal of Business Communication, 30, 399–414.

Abstract:
This study compares decision processes of consensus and devil's advocacy within an additive task, a disjunctive task, and a conjunctive task structure. The results suggest that high-conflict decision processes such as devil's advocacy enhances decision making in disjunctive tasks, retards decision making in additive tasks, but has no effect on decision making in conjunctive tasks. Perceptions of the group's atmosphere were most positive within consensus groups.

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Nielsen, M. E., & Miller, C. E. (1997). The transmission of norms regarding group decision rules. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 516-525.

Abstract:
Robert Jacobs and Donald Campbell's generational paradigm was used to examine the effects of group decision rule and performance feedback on the extent to which use of the decision rule was maintained as groups underwent turnover in membership. Confederates initially established a norm regarding rule use: Half the groups began with a majority rule and half with a seniority-based dictatorial rule. Groups made decisions about hiring (fictitious) job applicants. Half the groups in each decision rule condition received feedback that their decisions were correct and half that their decisions were incorrect. Groups that began with majority rule continued to use the rule. Groups that began with seniority rule always changed the rule and always changed it to majority rule. Performance feedback had no effect on maintenance of the decision rule, although it influenced group members' perceptions of the decision process and feelings toward the senior member under seniority rule.

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Priem, R. L., & Price, K. H. (1991). Process and outcome expectations for the dialectical inquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus techniques of strategic decision making. Group & Organization Studies, 16, 206-225.

Abstract:
This study examined expectations of cognitive conflict, social conflict, decision confidence, and postdecision group affect in the dialectical inquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus decision-making techniques. Expectations show some congruence with the affective, but not objective, outcomes found in prior empirical studies. Expectations were found to discriminate among dialectical inquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus.

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Renz, M. A. (2006). The meaning of consensus and blocking for cohousing groups. Small Group Research, 37, 351-376.

Abstract:
This study examined the meanings of consensus and a block of consensus for 47 residents of one forming and three formed cohousing communities. Interviews revealed that the groups in this study constructed the meaning of consensus in their communities over time. Residents' metaphors for consensus revealed a multilayered and often contradictory understanding of consensus as a process that was capable of leading to a decision no member had previously envisioned, to increased member insight, and to firmer relationships within the group. Descriptions of a consensus block revealed themes related to the motives for blocking and to the pivotal role blocking has in improving the group's thinking, stopping its progress, transforming its energy, isolating members, or building community.

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Street, M. D. (1997). Groupthink: An examination of theoretical issues, implications, and future research suggestions. Small Group Research, 28, 72-93.

Abstract:
Despite its widespread appeal, the groupthink model has come under severe attack recently. Taking the position that recent calls for major revisions to the original formulation are premature, this article examines four theoretical areas that have been problematic for scholars investigating the groupthink phenomenon. This examination allows for the presentation of both implications and research suggestions designed to refocus research efforts on the model as originally proposed by Janis.

 

Chapter 5: Guiding the Flow of Ideas and Information

Bowers, C. A., Pharmer, J. A., & Salas, E. (2000). When member homogeneity is needed in work teams: A meta-analysis. Small Group Research, 31, 305-327.

Abstract:
A meta-analytic integration of 57 effect sizes from 13 studies (567 teams, 2,258 participants) was performed to determine if groups that are homogeneous with respect to gender, ability level, and personality achieve higher levels of performance than teams that are heterogeneous on these attributes. Although individual studies often show marked differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous groups, the results of this integration show the combined effect sizes of these studies to be small, though not significant, in favor of heterogeneous groups. It appears that the significant effects found in many of the included studies can be attributed to the type and difficulty of the task used in the investigation. Implications for team construction are discussed.

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Janssens, M., & Brett, J. M. (2006). Cultural intelligence in global teams: A fusion model of collaboration. Group & Organization Management, 31, 124-153.

Abstract:
This article introduces a new, culturally intelligent model of collaboration for global teams that is intended to enhance the likelihood of such teams making creatively realistic decisions. The conceptualization for this new fusion model of global team collaboration draws on the culinary tradition of fusion cooking, current political theorizing about pluralistic societies, as well as theories of in formation processing and political decisionmaking. We describe how the fusion principle of coexistence facilitates information extraction and decision making, and we recommend formal interventions to counterbalance the unequal power relations among global team members. We contrast the fusion model to models of collaboration based on principles of the dominant coalition and of integration and/or identity, pointing out why fusion is a more culturally intelligent model for team collaboration, producing superior solutions to global problems.

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Cady, S. H., ,& Valentine, J. (1999). Team innovation and perceptions of consideration: What difference does diversity make? Small Group Research, 30, 730-750.

Abstract:
This article presents an authentic field study, which used an entropy-based formula to measure team diversity, of 50 teams. The data were collected in a division of a high-tech, Fortune 500 company. The results revealed that diversity (race, age, sex, and function) had no impact on quality of innovation, whereas sex and race had a negative and positive impact, respectively, on quantity of innovation. It was also found that race and sex negatively influenced perceptions of teaming consideration.

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Chirumbolo, A., Mannetti, L., Pierro, A., Areni, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2005). Motivated closed-mindedness and creativity in small groups. Small Group Research, 36, 59-82.

Abstract:
An experiment was conducted to investigate whether the need for cognitive closure affects the degree of creativity in small groups. Participants in groups of four performed a task in which they had to create advertising slogans for a given product. Some of the groups were composed of individuals with high dispositional need for closure, whereas other groups were composed of individuals with low need for closure. Results showed that ideational fluency, degree of elaboration, and creativity, as rated by independent judges, was lower in high (vs. low) need-for-closure groups. These results suggest that the tendencies to restrict the number of hypotheses generated and to produce conventional ideas, consequences of the need for closure, lower the degree of creativity in interacting groups.

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Firestein, R. L. (1990). Effects of creative problem solving training on communication behaviors in small groups. Small Group Research, 21, 507–521.

This study investigated tlhe differences in communication behaviors in small groups trained in creative problem solving (CPS) with groups not trained in CPS. Forty groups of five members each were evaluated (22 trained groups and 18 untrained groups). Communication behaviors evaluated were amount of participation, evenness of participation, verbal indications of criticism, verbal indications of support, and verbal and nonverbal indications of humor. Groups were also evaluated on the quantity of ideas generated. Results indicated that groups trained in CPS participated more, criticized ideas less, supported ideas more, exhibited more verbal and nonverbal indications of humor, and produced more ideas than did untrained groups-all at a significant level. Groups trained in CPS did not participate evenly as compared to groups not trained in CPS. This finding is examined in light of the role of the idea recorder in the groups.

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Kramer, M. W., Kuo, C. L., & Dailey, J. C. (1997). The impact of brainstorming techniques on subsequent group processes. Small Group Research, 28, 218-242.

Abstract:
Previous research on brainstorming and nominal group techniques has focused primarily on theirability to generate ideas without examining the impact of these procedures on actual group decision making. This experimental study found no difference in the decision quality of untrained, brainstorming, and nominal groups. However, brainstorming and nominal group members were more satisfied, felt their groups used a more effective process, andfelt they communicated more effectively than untrained groups. Such results suggest that the impact of these techniques goes beyond their ability to generate ideas by affecting group process and communication in positive ways.

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Lowry, P. B., Roberts, T. L., Romano, N. C., Cheney, P. D., & Hightower, R. T. (2006). The impact of group size and social presence on small-group communication: Does computer-mediated communication make a difference? Small Group Research, 37, 631-661.

Abstract:
This study evaluates the impact of varying group size and social presence on small-group communication. It compares key communication factors—faceto-face (FtF) without computer-mediated communication (CMC) support, FtF with CMC support, and virtual with CMC support—on two different small group sizes (3 and 6). Results indicate that smaller groups establish and maintain higher levels of communication quality, and FtF with CMC support groups have higher levels of communication quality than virtual with CMC support groups; however, no significant difference between traditional FtF groups and virtual groups with CMC support was found. Also, CMC minimized the impact of increased group size. Process losses that a larger FtF group might ordinarily experience can be reduced through the use of CMC. These results should help project managers plan for and deal with the difficulty of communication between project group members in virtual environments.

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Martins, L. L., Milliken, F. J., Wiesenfeld, B. M., & Salgado, S. R. (2003). Racioethnic diversity and group members’ experiences: The role of the racioethnic diversity of the organizational context. Group & Organization Management, 28, 75-106.

Abstract:
This study examines the effects of a group’s racioethnic diversity on its members’ experiences in two organizational contexts: one that is relatively heterogeneous in racioethnicity and another that is more homogeneous. Additionally, this study examines the effects of diversity on the deeper level trait of collectivism, in both contexts. The authors propose that the extent of racioethnic diversity in the organizational context will determine whether group members pay attention and react to racioethnic category differences or focus on deeper level differences in values and attitudes within their groups. Consistent with this notion, it was found that a group’s racioethnic diversity has stronger negative effects on its members’ experiences in the more homogeneous context than in the more heterogeneous one. The authors also found that a group’s diversity in collectivism has significant negative effects on its members’ experiences in the more heterogeneous context but not in the more homogeneous one.

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McLeod, P. L., Lobel, S. A., & Cox, T. H. (1996). Ethnic diversity and creativity in small groups. Small Group Research, 27, 248-264.

Abstract:
There is a growing belief among managers that ethnic diversity, when well managed, can provide organizations with certain competitive advantages. But the belief in this value-inl diversity hypothesis rests largely on anecdotal rather than empirical evidence. Results are reported ofa controlled experimental study that compares the performance on a brainstorm ing task between groups composed of all Anglo-Americans with groups composed ofAnglo-, Asian, African, and Hispanic Americans. The particular brainstorming task used-The Tourist Problem-was chosenfor its relevancefordiversity along the dimension of ethnicity. The ideas produced by the ethnically diverse groups were judged to be of higher quality-more effective andfeasible-than the ideas produced by the homogeneous groups. Members of homogeneous groups reported marginally more attraction to their groups than did members of diverse oroups. Directions for future research with respect to the degree of diversity, the nature of the task, and group process are discussed.

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Miura, A., & Hida, M. (2004). Synergy between diversity and similarity in group-idea generation. Small Group Research, 35, 540-564.

Abstract:
This article is a report of two experiments that were conducted to investigate the creative performance of groups during idea-generation sessions. The hypothesis was that groups in which higher levels of both member diversity and similarity of thought categories were combined would show greater gains in creative performance. In Study 1, the participants (n = 168) were assigned to 56 three-person groups and performed an inventive creativity task. The results supported the hypothesis. Forty-one three-person groups, which consisted solely of female participants (n = 123) performed an ameliorative creativity task in Study 2. The hypothesis was again confirmed. These results suggest that a form of synergy between diversity and similarity operates in group creativity.

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Paletz, S. B. F., Peng, K., Erez, M., & Maslach, C. (2004). Ethnic composition and its differential impact on group processes in diverse teams. Small Group Research, 35, 128-157.

Abstract:
This study contrasts the effects of two types of ethnically heterogeneous groups on their enjoyment of and performance on an interactive creative task. The majority of each group was composed of either ethnic minorities or Caucasians. Analyses were conducted using hierarchical linear modeling where appropriate. Teams composed mostly of ethnic minorities rated working with the group to be more enjoyable and reported experiencing more positive and fewer negative emotions. Ethnic composition was not predictive of task creativity. Both individual ethnicity and the interaction between individual ethnicity and ethnic composition had an effect on negative emotions; these effects were independent of the group-level effect. Issues concerning ethnic diversity, group dynamics, and context effects are discussed.

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Wheelan, S. A. (2009). Group size, group development, and group productivity. Small Group Research, 40, 247-262.

Abstract:
This research investigated the impact of small and large work groups on developmental processes and group productivity. There were 329 work groups operating in for-profit and nonprofit organizations across the United States in this study. Groups containing 3 to 8 members were significantly more productive and more developmentally advanced than groups with 9 members or more. Groups containing 3 to 6 members were significantly more productive and more developmentally advanced than groups with 7 to 10 members or 11 members or more. The groups with 7 to 10 members or 11 members were not different from each other. Finally, groups containing 3 to 4 members were significantly more productive and more developmentally advanced on a number of measures than groups with 5 to 6 members. Work-group size is a crucial factor in increasing or decreasing both group development and productivity.

 

Chapter 6: Leading the Team

Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R., Eys, M. A., & Carron, A. V. (2005). Leadership behaviors and multidimensional role ambiguity perceptions in team sports. Small Group Research, 36, 5-20.

Abstract:
The relationships between leadership behaviors and athletes’ perceptions of role ambiguity were investigated within interdependent team sports. Early to midway through their respective seasons, the degree to which coaches engaged in training and instruction and positive feedback behaviors was investigated in relation to athletes’ subsequent perceptions of multi-dimensional role ambiguity. For nonstarters, coaches’ training and instruction accounted for significant variation in offensive and defensive role consequences ambiguity as well as offensive role evaluation ambiguity. However, for starters, neither of the leadership dimensions assessed in this study could explain significant variance in any of the role ambiguity dimensions. Results are discussed in terms of theory development and further research investigating possible antecedents of multidimensional role ambiguity.

***

De Cremer, D. (2003). How self-conception may lead to inequality: Effect of hierarchical roles on the equality rule in organizational resource-sharing tasks. Group & Organization Management, 28, 282-302.

Abstract:
This research examined the influence of role (leader or follower) within a group on the use of the equality rule (dividing resources equally) in allocation decisions. Different positions in the organizational hierarchy may activate different role schemas on how individuals should behave. Role schemas for leaders communicate that they should act responsibly, but also that they deserve certain privileges relevant to the allocation situation. It was predicted that leaders would allocate more resources to themselves than to their followers. The results of three studies (two scenario studies and one experimental study) revealed that leaders violated the equality rule by allocating more than a fair share of resources to themselves. Results also showed that leaders used the equality rule more for identifiable decisions (high accountability) than for unidentifiable decisions (low accountability). Findings are discussed in terms of leadership and social decision theories. Practical implications are outlined.

***

Driskell, J. E., & Mullen, B. (1990). Status, expectations, and behavior: A meta-analytic review and test of the theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 541–553.

Abstract:
Status characteristics and expectation states theory is concerned with the processes whereby status differentials activate performance expectations and with the effect of these expectations on behavior. The relative contributions of status and expectations to behavior have not been clearly established in previous primary-level studies. Moreover, researchers working within alternative perspectives on interaction inequality have argued that expectations are a superfluous epiphenomenon of behavior. A meta-analytic integration was therefore conducted on previous research that has examined the status expectations - behavior pattern of effects. Consistent with the formulations of the theory, the results indicate that status exerts its effects on behavior indirectly, through the effects of status on expectations and the effect of expectations on behavior.

***

Foels, R., Driskell, J. E., Mullen, B., & Salas, E. (2000). The effects of democratic leadership on group member satisfaction. Small Group Research, 31, 676-701.

Abstract:
Previous research highlights one of the paradoxes of different leadership styles: Group members may be more satisfied with democratic leadership, or group members may be more satisfied with autocratic leadership. A meta-analytic integration of research evidence addressing this paradox revealed that there was, in general, a significant, small tendency for groups experiencing democratic leadership to be more satisfied than groups experiencing autocratic leadership. However, these effects were moderated by several variables, including the reality of the groups, the size of the groups, the gender composition of the groups, and the potency of leadership style. These moderating variables may be important given the recent push toward adoption of democratic decision making in organizations. The discussion considers theoretical accounts for these effects of leadership style on member satisfaction.

***

Gastil, J. (1994). A definition and illustration of democratic leadership. Human Relations, 47, 953-975.

Abstract:
Renewed calls for democracy make it imperative that we understand the nature of democratic leadership. Existing definitions of democratic leadership are inconsistent and inadequate, so this essay provides a clear definition that applies to social groups both large and small. As defined herein, democratic leadership is conceptually distinct from positions of authority; rather, it is defined as the performance of three functions: distributing responsibility among the membership, empowering group members, and aiding the group's decision-making process. Many, most, or all members of a group serve these functions, regularly exchanging the roles of leader and follower. A limited number of practical and moral considerations are identified for assessing the appropriateness of the democratic leadership model for different groups. In addition, the National Issues Forums program is used to illustrate the model, and suggestions are made for future research on democratic leadership.

***

Gastil, J. (1994). A meta-analytic review of the productivity and satisfaction of democratic and autocratic leadership. Small Group Research, 25, 384-410.

Abstract:
There exists a wealth of research examining the effects of democratic and autocratic leadership on group productivity and member satisfaction; however, past reviews of this literature have not systematically integrated the results of available quantitative studies. This essay uses a meta-analysis to provide such an integration. Analysis reveals no correlation between democraticdautocratic leadership style and productivity, except when taking into consideration the influence of study setting and task complexity. Results also suggest that democratic leadership has a moderate positive correlation with member satisfaction, but this relationship may be moderated by task complexity. The conclusion discusses the limits of experimentally manipulating democratic leadership and the need for conceptual refinement.

***

Gershenoff, A. B., & Foti, R. J. (2003). Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination. Small Group Research, 34, 170-196.

Abstract:
Research suggests that gender role, rather than sex, is associated with the perception of individuals as leaders. This study tests the effect of gender role and intelligence on leadership emergence by using a pattern approach and manipulating task type. Two hundred female undergraduate participants, categorized by their pattern of masculinity, femininity, and intelligence, were placed in groups of 4 members. Groups were randomly assigned to an initiating-structure or consensus-building task condition. In the initiating-structure task condition, both masculine-intelligent and androgynous-intelligent individuals emerged more than feminine-intelligent or mixed-pattern individuals. In the consensus-building task condition, feminine-intelligent individuals did not emerge as leaders more than masculine-intelligent or mixed-pattern individuals. However, partial support was found for the emergence of androgynous-intelligent individuals.

***

Hawkins, K. W., & Power, C. B. (1999). Gender differences in questions asked during small decision-making group discussions. Small Group Research, 30, 235-256.

Abstract:
Sixty minutes each of group discussions from 18 four- to seven-member decision-making groups were audiotaped and transcribed for analysis. Results indicated that questions constituted 15.6% of total turns by group members. Probes were the most frequently occurring question type (89.2%). There was a significant gender difference in only one of the five question types: Female group members asked significantly more probing questions than did their male counterparts. Implications of these findings are discussed.

***

Karakowsky, L., McBey, K., & Miller, D. L. (2004). Gender, perceived competence, and power displays: Examining verbal interruptions in a group context. Small Group Research, 35, 407-439.

Abstract:
This study examined sources of influence on power displays in mixed-gender work groups. The participants for this study included 216 university students who were randomly assigned to 36 mixed-gender groups for the purpose of case discussions. Measures of individual verbal interruption behavior were used as indicators of power displays among group members. The findings support the assertion that the proportional representation of men and women in a group will influence patterns of interruption behavior, with both men and women exhibiting higher levels of interruption behavior in male-dominated groups. In addition, the results indicate that perceived member competence based on congruence or incongruence with the gender orientation of the group’s task has a greater impact on power displays among women compared to men. The use of such power displays was also shown to be negatively correlated with leadership rankings in the group for both men and women.

***

Moxnes, P. (1999a). Deep roles: Twelve primordial roles of mind and organization. Human Relations, 52, 1127-1144.

Abstract:
The thesis in this paper is that there are 12 archetypal roles in groups and organizations. These "deep roles" have their origin in the roles of the essential family-father, mother, son, and daughter. In groups and organizations, each of these images of family roles will-through the basic defense mechanisms of splitting and projection-be polarized into a good and bad part: The father as God or devil, the mother as queen or witch, the son as crown prince or black sheep, and the daughter as princess or whore. In addition to these eight primary deep roles, there come two secondary ones: the helpers-Shaman and Slave-whose function are to help the family survive spiritually and materially, respectively. The two last deep roles are of a transcendental nature: the hero (winner) and the clown (loser), i.e., the one who has won a good family role, and the one who has lost it-or never gained it. These 12 deep roles are well known from such cultural artifacts as fairy tales and mythology. In groups and organizations, deep roles are attended with power and interest. Those who are attributed a deep role in their organization will have a similar symbolic power as characters in fairy tales and mythology.

***

Rousseau, V., Aube, C., & Savoie, A. (2006). Teamwork behaviors: A review and an integration of frameworks. Small Group Research, 37, 540-570.

Abstract:
The existing body of literature on teamwork behaviors is substantial and offers many different conceptualizations. However, there is a lack of consensus concerning the conceptual structure of teamwork behaviors. Many researchers pursue their own work without any attempt to build on and integrate the work of others. This article reviews the frameworks of teamwork behaviors in the literature on work teams and provides a way of integrating these frameworks. The behavioral dimensions included in this integrative framework are conceptually distinguished and arranged in a hierarchical conceptual structure based on theoretical approaches. Moreover, they are framed from the perspective of the timing of teamwork behaviors to clarify when these behaviors are most likely to have their intended effects. The proposed framework is then connected to the task conditions under which teamwork behaviors are most likely to facilitate collective task accomplishment. Finally, future directions for research regarding teamwork behaviors are discussed.

***

Rudman, L. A., Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1315-28.

Abstract:
Attitudes toward female authority and their relationship to gender beliefs were examined using implicit and explicit measures of each. Implicit attitudes covaried with implicit gender authority beliefs (i.e., linking men to high-authority and women to low-authority roles). Explicit attitudes covaried with explicit gender authority beliefs, feminist identification, and hostile sexism. Thus, gender authority beliefs may influence both conscious and unconscious prejudice against female authorities. Although women showed less explicit prejudice than did men, their implicit attitudes were similarly negative. Finally, the relationship found between two different response latency methods (a priming task for attitudes, a categorization task for beliefs) supports the assumption that implicit measures assess similar constructs (i.e., automatic associations in long-term memory).

***

Salas, E., Sims, D. E., & Burke, C. S. (2005). Is there a "Big Five" in teamwork? Small Group Research, 36, 555-599.

Abstract:
The study of teamwork has been fragmented through the years, and the findings are generally unable to be used practically. This article argues that it is possible to boil down what researchers know about teamwork into five core components that the authors submit as the "Big Five" in teamwork. The core components of teamwork include team leadership, mutual performance monitoring, backup behavior, adaptability, and team orientation. Furthermore, the authors examine how these core components require supporting coordinating mechanisms (e.g., shared mental modes, closed-loop communication, and mutual trust) and vary in their importance during the life of the team and the team task. Finally, the authors submit a set of propositions for future research.

***

Salazar, A. J. (1996). An analysis of the development and evolution of roles in the small group. Small Group Research, 27,475-503.

Abstract:
This article presents a critique of current conceptualizations of roles and their development and evolution in the small group. An alternative model is presented, one that is grounded in a structuration perspective and conceives of "role" as social practice. Roles are seen as being produced and reproduced in interaction. Such a conceptualization is helpful in ascertaining the dynamic nature of roles in the small group. Implications for small group research are presented.

 

Chapter 7: Forging Group Bonds

Burke, S. M., Carron, A. V., Patterson, M. M., Estabrooks, P. A. H. J. L., Loughead, T. M., Rosenfranz, S. R., & Spink, K. S. (2005). Cohesion as shared beliefs in exercise classes. Small Group Research, 36, 267-288.

Abstract:
The purpose of the study was to determine if perceptions of cohesion in exercise classes demonstrated sufficiently high consensus and between-group variance to support a conclusion that exercise classes are groups. Participants (N = 1,700) in 130classes were tested on either the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) or the Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire (PAGEQ). Results showed that exercise classes satisfied the statistical criteria necessary to support a conclusion that they are true groups; that is, they exhibited acceptable levels of consensus about cohesion within classes and acceptable differences in cohesion between classes. In addition, index-of-agreement values were significantly greater for participants completing the PAGEQ than for participants completing the GEQ. Finally, consensus was greatest when participants evaluated how the exercise class satisfied their own personal task needs (i.e., individual attractions to the group-task), and second greatest when participants evaluated the collective unity around the task objectives (i.e., group integration-task).

***

Gully, S. M., Devine, D. J., & Whitney, D. J. (1995). A meta-analysis of cohesion and performance: Effects of levels of analysis and task interdependence. Small Group Research, 26, 497-520.

Abstract:
This study extends previous work reviewing the cohesion-performance relationship by using meta-analytic techniques to assess the effects of level of analysis and task interdependence on the cohesion-performance relationship. A total of 51 effect sizesfmrom 46 empirical studies were obtainedfor the meta-analytic integration. Results suggest that level of analysis and task interdependence moderate the cohesion-performance relationship. Implications of the findingsforfuture research on group cohesion and performance are discussed.

***

Hoigaard, R., Safvenbom, R., & Tonnessen, F. E. (2006). The relationship between group cohesion, group norms, and perceived social loafing in soccer teams. Small Group Research, 37, 217-232.

Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between group cohesion, group norms, and perceived social loafing among 118 soccer players playing junior league in Norway. Each player completed a questionnaire assessing group cohesion (task cohesion and social cohesion), team norms (productive norms, role involvement, and social support norms), and perceived social loafing. As predicted, all cohesion- and team-norm subscales were negatively correlated with perceived social loafing. Furthermore, the results showed that the players’ attraction to their team’s task as well as their perception of the productive- and social-support norm predicted perceptions of social loafing. A significant three-way interaction between task cohesion, social cohesion, and performance norm emerged. The analysis showed that the combination of high social cohesion, low task cohesion, and low team norms seems to underlie perceptions of social loafing.

***

Keyton, J. (2000). Introduction: The relational side of groups. Small Group Research, 31. 387-396.

***

Sanders, K., & Nauta, A. (2004). Social cohesiveness and absenteeism: The relationship between characteristics ofemployees and short-term absenteeism within an organization. Small Group Research, 35, 724-741.

Abstract:
This study tries to explain the relationship between characteristics of the employees (e.g., gender and working hours) and short-term absenteeism by examining the social cohesiveness of a team. Hypotheses are formulated concerning gender and working hours of employees, social cohesiveness, and short-term absenteeism. To test these hypotheses, network data on 56 employees in 8 comparable teams within an organization were collected. The results show that similarity in gender and percentage of full-time employees within a team were positively related to the social cohesiveness of a team and that social cohesiveness is negatively related to short-term absenteeism.

***

Wellen, J. M., & Neale, M. (2006). Deviance, self-typicality, and group cohesion: The corrosive effects of the bad apples on the barrel. Small Group Research, 37, 165-187.

Abstract:
This study investigated the effect of a single work group deviant on other group members' perceptions of the deviant, and their perceptions of the cohesiveness of the group as a whole. Group members, particularly those high in perceived self-typicality, were expected to downgrade the deviant, and view groups containing a deviant as less cohesive. Undergraduate management students were placed in a simulated organizational context in which deviance was manipulated so that the participant's work group contained either a single negative deviant or no deviant. Results showed that the deviant colleague was judged less favorably than the normative colleague, particularly by those high in perceived self-typicality. Groups that contained a deviant were perceived as having lower levels of task cohesion, but ratings of social cohesion varied depending on perceivers' self-typicality. The findings suggest that as well as attracting negative evaluations, deviant group members can adversely affect group cohesion.

 

Chapter 8: Shifting Social Identities

Bargal, D. (2004). Structure and process in reconciliation-transformation workshops: Encounters between Israeli and Palestinian youth. Small Group Research, 35, 596-616.

Abstract:
This article presents a detailed blueprint for conducting reconciliation-transformation workshops among Jewish and Palestinian youth. The workshops are based on interventions that deal with intragroup and intergroup dynamics. Conflict management workshops, which at one time utilized small group interventions to create a bridge between two conflicting parties, are no longer effective. The recent escalation of the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians has resulted in a vicious cycle of deaths and casualties on both sides. Thus, in the attempt to generate a dialogue between the two groups, reconciliation-transformation measures should be used as a means of reducing the cognitive distortions, anger, hostility, fear, grief, victimization, and humiliation that have developed. The workshop structure and process proposed in the article reflect the ideal design based on interdisciplinary knowledge and experience gained from efforts to build peace in other conflictual contexts such as those of South Africa and South America.

***

Boyle, D. E., Marshall, N. L., & Robeson, W. W. (2003). Gender at play: Fourth-grade girls and boys on the playground. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 1326-45.

Abstract:
This study explores the complicated social interactions related to gender that take place at school recess. Using grounded theory methodology and a social constructionist perspective, the researchers observed 67 recesses in New England and then examined the data to determine which themes emerged. Results demonstrate that there is great complexity in preadolescent gender relations and that their incidence and significance is in flux during recess time. Among the results noted were ways in which children reinforce their gender identities; the wide intragender variability in choice of activities especially for girls; and clear evidence of borderwork, that is, those interactions where boys and girls play together but there is something about the play that actually reinforces the gender divisions rather than diminishes them. Future research should examine ways adults can support children in developing relationships based on mutual collegiality and liking, thereby building their sense of competence and self-esteem.

***

Graham, C. R. (2003). A model of norm development for computer-mediated teamwork. Small Group Research, 34, 322-352.

Abstract:
The process of establishing norms is an important aspect of group dynamics. Most, if not all, of the major models of group development incorporate norming as an important part of the process. However, little is understood and agreed on regarding how norms develop. With the increased availability and power of technology to connect people at remote sites, the popularity of computer-mediated teamwork has increased dramatically. This new communication context brings with it some dramatic differences from the traditional face-to-face context, along with a need to understand how norms develop in this environment. This study investigates the norming process engaged in by 10 computer-mediated learning teams. The study describes how group norms evolve from a general to an operationalized state. Based on the findings of the research, a model describing the process of norm development in computer-mediated teams is presented. In addition, a model is presented to describe how individual perceptions of norm boundaries are modified as the group norms become more operationalized.

***

Huang, M. (2009). A conceptual framework of the effects of positive affect and affective relationships on group knowledge networks. Small Group Research, 40, 323-346.

Abstract:
A theoretical model integrating research in social psychology and group knowledge networks regarding the pervasive influence of affect on group transactive memory systems (TMSs) is presented. The proposed affective transactive memory (ATM) model extending TMS beyond its cognitive tradition provides a promising interdisciplinary theoretical base for future research. The role of positive affect (PA) in the three dimensions of TMS effectiveness—accuracy in expertise recognition, sharedness of knowledge, and member participation—are discussed. Propositions are presented regarding the effects of members' PA and affective relationships on member information retrieval and allocation, which is further explored as four attribute and relational effects in knowledge networks. Ways to further integrate affect into contemporary small group knowledge network theorizing and research are suggested.

***

Kamoche, K. (1995). Rhetoric, ritualism, and totemism in human resource management. Human Relations, 48, 367-385.

Abstract:
This paper posits an interpretivist approach to the study of human resource management (HRM) by examining how organizational members construct meanings of HRM in everyday life through ritualistic behavior and the use of language. Concepts from language philosophy and socio-anthropology are brought together to develop an analytical premise upon which we can begin to appreciate the seemingly complex issues associated with expressive and ritualistic behavior in organizations. Propositions are posited and subsequently examined through an analysis of statements about teamwork in a Kenyan firm. A thematic analysis reveals that teamwork is a totemic device created by organizational members in everyday life. Through shifts in language games ranging from rhetoric to plain speaking, management uses the totem of teamwork to create and legitimize the desired pattern of power and social relations.

***

Lee, E.-J. (2006). When and how does depersonalization increase conformity to group: Norms in computer-mediated communication? Communication Research, 33, 423-477.

Abstract:
The experiment reported herein examined how depersonalization, operationalized as the lack of individuating information, affects conformity to a group norm in anonymous computer-mediated communication. Participants made a decision about choice dilemmas and exchanged their decisions and supporting arguments with three ostensible partners via computer, who unanimously endorsed the position opposite of the participant’s. As predicted, depersonalization led to a more extreme perception of the group norm, better recall of the interactants’ arguments, and more positive evaluations of the interactants’ arguments through group identification, albeit only for women. Moreover, depersonalization was more likely to facilitate conformity to group norms among those with higher need for public individuation and among women. A test of indirect effects showed that group identification and extremity of the perceived group norm mediated the effects of depersonalization on conformity.

***

Pavitt, C., Zingerman, V., Towey, E., & McFeeters, C. (2006). Group communication during resource dilemmas: 2. Effects of harvest limit and reward asymmetry. Communication Research, 33, 64-91.

Abstract:
A resource dilemma is a circumstance in which an aggregate of people share a slowly replenishing resource pool out of which each person can harvest a significant amount. Resource dilemmas normally make salient an allocation norm of equality in harvests among aggregate members. When asymmetry among aggregate members exists in terms of either access to the resource pool or reward for harvest, the equity allocation norm becomes equally relevant. In this study, groups experienced an experimental simulation of a resource dilemma under either symmetric, asymmetric harvest limit, or asymmetric reward conditions. Groups in the asymmetric conditions were more likely to choose explicitly to follow an allocation norm, and groups that chose to follow a norm had a far more task-oriented discussion and positive perceptions of their experience than groups that did not make an explicit choice. Neither experimental condition nor explicit norm choice revealed a discernible impact on harvesting.

***

Rink, F. A., & Ellemers, N. (2009). Temporary versus permanent group membership: How the future prospects of newcomers affect newcomer acceptance and newcomer influence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 764 - 775.

Abstract:
Three studies examine how the future prospects of new group members affect newcomer acceptance and newcomer influence. In Study 1, participants anticipate accepting temporary newcomers less easily than permanent newcomers because they expect temporary newcomers to differ from the group. In Study 2, the effects of newcomer entry in three-person groups are examined. Results show that groups perceived temporary newcomers as more involved in a judgmental decision-making process than permanent newcomers. In Study 3, a hidden profile task confirms that temporary newcomers indeed shared more unique knowledge during discussions than permanent newcomers and that this enhanced the groups' decision quality. However, compared to permanent newcomers, temporary newcomers caused teams to experience more conflict and less group identification, illustrating the tension between innovative group performance and group cohesion. The results are discussed in light of the social identity perspective and research on minority influence.

 

Chapter 9: Learning and Growing

Antil, L. R., Jenkins, J. R., & Wayne, S. K. (1998). Cooperative learning: Prevalence, conceptualizations, and the relation between research and practice. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 419-454.

Abstract:
This study examined the prevalence, conceptualization, and form of cooperative learning used by elementary school teachers. Responding to a survey, 93% of teachers (n = 85) from six elementary schools in two districts indicated they used cooperative learning. In interviews with a subset of those teachers (n = 21), all indicated having daily cooperative lessons in several subjects. The majority of teachers subscribed to cooperative learning to achieve both academic and social learning goals, structured tasks for positive interdependence, and taught students skills for working in small groups. When we applied criteria for cooperative learning derived from the research literature, few teachers were employing recognized forms of this practice, primarily because they did not tie individual accountability to group goals. Implications for communication between researcher-developers and teachers are discussed.

***

Kayes, D. C. (2006). From climbing stairs to riding waves: Group critical thinking and its development. Small Group Research, 37, 612-630.

Abstract:
This article provides a model, measure, and theoretical background for understanding group critical thinking. A research study was designed to test group critical thinking and its relationship to the learning style composition of teams. Groups were composed using a randomized block design based on learning style, and responses to a group exercise were coded for type of critical thinking. Results showed support for a group-level measure of critical thinking based on interrater agreement on codes. Some support was found for differences in critical thinking based on learning style. However, critical thinking was not shown to relate to group cohesion, psychological safety, or efficacy. This study marks the first empirical evidence supporting critical thinking at the group level. It provides a measure that can be used in assessing the level of critical thinking for vocational education and assessing team performance on ill-structured problems.

***

Laux, J. M., Smirnoff, J. B., Ritchie, M. H., & Cochrane, W. S. (2007). The effect of type of screening on the satisfaction of students in experiential counseling training groups. Small Group Research, 38, 289-300.

Abstract:
Students' participation in training groups as a function of enrollment in a group counseling course is almost a universal requirement in counselor education programs. The skill of screening for group membership is an essential component to the development of effective group leadership. Guided by the functional theoretical perspective, this study investigated the role that type of screening (verbal or written) plays in determining student satisfaction with the group and the group counseling class in general, the degree of satisfaction with the groups' success and goal attainment, and the composition of the group membership. The results suggest that both types of screening methods produce neutral to favorable responses; however, students screened using face-to-face verbal screening methods reported significantly greater satisfaction with the group and the group counseling course. Specifically, students screened using the face-to-face verbal method reported that their groups were more successful and reached their goals to a greater degree than those screened using a written approach.

***

Mcleod, P. L., & Kettner-Polley, R. B. (2004). Contributions of psychodynamic theories to understanding small groups. Small Group Research, 35, 333-361.

Abstract:
Psychodynamic theories of groups operate on the fundamental assumption that (a) nonconscious emotional processes shape interpersonal behavior in groups; (b) the lack of awareness of these processes inhibits effective work in the group; and (c) bringing such processes to members’ awareness will help remove this inhibition. Psychodynamic theories can be classified into two types of approaches: psychoanalytic and humanistic. These perspectives further assume that social behavior has biological bases and that a group mind exists. The psychoanalytic approach is governed by a medical model and traces its early development to Freud. Humanistic approaches are governed by an education and the human development model and trace their roots to the early social psychological theories of Lewin. Psychodynamic perspectives have influenced the study of groups widely and are notable for their major contribution to theories of group development.

***

Shoemaker, H. J. (1991). Self-construction in a small group setting. Small Group Research, 22, 339-359.

Abstract:
The interpretive, developmental process of refiguring the ego is examined as it occurs in the perceptions of self, mediated by the cultural milieu of a student group and concretized in the narrations of personal journal writings. Students kept journals for private use; thus the audience for the journal narrative is the self. Narratives were explored for modes or styles of communication. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate not only that self-understandings are concretized through speech acts but that people actively engage in ongoing construction of the self, in the presence of others and through the use of types of communication in everyday language.

***

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 69, 21 - 51.

Abstract:
Recent calls for instructional innovation in undergraduate science, mathematics, engineering, and technology (SMET) courses and programs highlight the need for a solid foundation of education research at the undergraduate level on which to base policy and practice. We report herein the results of a meta-analysis that integrates research on undergraduate SMET education since 1980. The meta-analysis demonstrates that various forms of small-group learning are effective in promoting greater academic achievement, more favorable attitudes toward learning, and increased persistence through SMET courses and programs. The magnitude of the effects reported in this study exceeds most findings in comparable reviews of research on educational innovations and supports more widespread implementation of small-group learning in undergraduate SMET.

***

Willemsen, H., & Anscombe, E. (2001). Art and play group therapy for pre-school children infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 339 - 350.

Abstract:
This article presents the therapeutic approaches used in art and play therapy for children infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. We discuss developmental issues of individual children that emerged whilst participating in these groups and the processes involved. Issues of loss and separation related to bereavement are especially addressed. By providing a sense of containment we enabled these children to tolerate and integrate the traumatic experiences they have undergone.

 

Chapter 10: The Power of Knowledge

Becker-Beck, U., Wintermantel, M., & Borg, A. (2005). Principles of regulating interaction in teams practicing face-to-face communication versus teams. Small Group Research, 36, 499-536.

Abstract:
This study investigates how the regulation of interaction on the performative level (types and functions of interactions) and the referential level (relations of concepts) varies depending on the modality of communication: face-to-face, synchronous, and asynchronous text-based computer-mediated communication. In the experimental setting, six groups consisting of four experts cooperated per one of the three modalities in planning a marketing campaign for solar energy systems. The communication transcripts were analyzed on the performative level by SYMLOG. On the referential level, a network analysis was established to examine how relevant concepts were introduced in the discussion. The group output was measured with regard to group work, satisfaction, and performance. The results show that all communication modalities differ on the performative and on the referential level. No differences between the modalities were found regarding group work and satisfaction of the members. Group performance was judged better in face-to-face than in computer-mediated groups.

***

Fung, A. (2005). Deliberation before the revolution - Toward an ethics of deliberative democracy in an unjust world. Political Theory, 33, 397-419.

Abstract:
Deliberative democracy is a revolutionary political ideal that requires fundamental changes in political institutions, bases of collective decision making, and the distribution of resources. Perhaps because of its revolutionary character, accounts of deliberation in political theory thus far have offered little guidance for actors in actually-existing democratic circumstances. This article develops an ethical account of deliberative democratic action under imperfectly just conditions characterized by material and political inequality and failures of reciprocity. Under such conditions, appropriate principles of action can resolve the tension between deliberation and confrontational political activism. The logic of this account parallels the justification for civil disobedience: the extent of permissible deviation from deliberative norms increases according to the adversity of political circumstances. This ethical account is composed of principles of deliberative activism, applications of those principles to four kinds of increasing unfavorable circumstances, and a menu of institutional and political strategies that increase deliberative inclusion and equality.

***

Gordon, E., & Koo, G. (2008). Placeworlds: Using virtual worlds to foster civic engagement. Space and Culture, 11, 204 - 221.

Abstract:
This article describes a pilot program in Boston, Massachusetts, that incorporates virtual worlds into the urban planning process. The authors argue that the immersive, playful, and social qualities of the virtual world Second Life are uniquely appropriate to engage people in dialogue about their communities. By sharing experiences of a planned space and having the opportunity to deliberate over, comment on, and alter that space, previously disempowered individuals are able to form politically powerful groups. This takes place through the formation of what the authors call placeworlds, a subgroup of the Habermasian lifeworld that is organized around the shared understanding of place. Second Life and similar virtual world platforms offer profound possibilities for how local communities can imagine themselves as political actors in the face of global and homogenizing political systems.

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Vitale, D. (2006). Between deliberative and participatory democracy: A contribution on Habermas. Philosophy & Social Criticism, 32, 739 - 766.

Abstract:
Deliberative democracy has assumed a central role in the debate about deepening democratic practices in complex contemporary societies. By acknowledging the citizens as the main actors in the political process, political deliberation entails a strong ideal of participation that has not, however, been properly clarified. The main purpose of this article is to discuss, through Jürgen Habermas’ analysis of modernity, reason and democracy, whether and to what extent deliberative democracy and participatory democracy are compatible and how they can, either separately or together, enhance democratic practices. Further exploration of this relationship will permit a better understanding of the possibilities and limits of institutionalizing both discourses, as well as of developing democracy in a more substantive dimension.

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Wagner, A. (2008). Religion and civil society: A critical reappraisal of America's civic engagement debate. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 37, 626 - 645.

Abstract:
This article looks at some of the cutting-edge issues that have been raised in the current civic engagement debate, notably with respect to the role played by organized religion in reviving America's democracy. The framework used to analyze the relationship between religion and civil society borrows from Arendt's, Habermas's, and Rawls's writings in political philosophy. In its core analytical claim, the article draws a division between a discourse-based deliberative democracy and one that is based on participation in mostly local communities and associations. In this context, the author contrasts a social-capital approach to understanding the role of religion and civil society with one that emphasizes the primacy of political relations and hence the importance of political capital. The purpose of the article is to provide a critical framework that can be used by theoreticians and practitioners, facing issues of management and political activism in an organizational environment, in which religious values and secular guidelines increasingly overlap.

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Wright, S., & Street, J. (2007). Democracy, deliberation and design: The case of online discussion forums. New Media & Society, 9, 849-869.

Abstract:
Within democratic theory, the deliberative variant has assumed pre-eminence. It represents for many the ideal of democracy, and in pursuit of this ideal, online discussion forums have been proposed as solutions to the practical limits to mass deliberation. Critics have pointed to evidence which suggests that online discussion has tended to undermine deliberation. This article argues that this claim, which generates a stand-off between the two camps, misses a key issue: the role played by design in facilitating or thwarting deliberation. It argues that political choices are made both about the format and operation of the online discussion, and that this affects the possibility of deliberation. Evidence for the impact of design (and the choices behind it) is drawn from analysis of European Union and UK discussion forums. This evidence suggests that we should view deliberation as dependent on design and choice, rather than a predetermined product of the technology.

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Wuthnow, R. (1987). American democracy and the democratization of American religion. Politics & Society, 15, 223 - 234.