Chapter Resources

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Action Research

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    • Educational research involves the application of the scientific method to educational problems.
      • Answers to questions typically come from common sources, such as tradition, authority, and common sense.
      • The scientific method is a more systematic, objective procedure for finding answers to questions.
      • Traditional research is often conducted by individuals who are somewhat removed from the environment they are studying.
    • Two broad types of research methods are quantitative and qualitative.
      • Quantitative research methodologies require the collection of numerical data and utilize a deductive approach to reasoning; they include both nonexperimental (e.g.,descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative research) and experimental designs.
      • Qualitative research methodologies require the collection of narrative data and utilize an inductive approach to reasoning; they include phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies.
      • Mixed-methods research designs combine both quantitative and qualitative types of data.
    • Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by educators for the purpose of gathering information about how their particular schools operate, how they teach, and how their students learn.
      • Action research is done by teachers for teachers, working with students and colleagues.
      • Teacher reflection is an integral part of action research.
      • The basic process of action research consists of the following four stages: planning, acting, developing, and reflecting.
      • Most action research studies are cyclical and iterative.
      • Action research can be used effectively to bridge the gap between theory and practice, to improve educational practice, to empower teachers, to provide professional growth opportunities for teachers, to identify educational problems, to develop and test solutions, and to expand the knowledge base of preservice teachers.

Chapter 2: Overview of the Action Research Process

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    • The cyclical and iterative action research process comprises four stages: planning, acting, developing, and reflecting.
      • The planning stage consists of the following four steps:
      • Identifying and limiting the topic
      • Gathering information
      • Reviewing the related literature
      • Developing a research plan
    • The acting stage consists of the following two steps:
      • Implementing the plan and collecting data
      • Analyzing the data
    • The developing stage consists of the following step:
      • Developing an action plan
    • The reflecting stage consists of the following two steps:
      • Sharing and communicating the results
      • Reflecting on the process

Chapter 3: Planning for Action Research

Chapter 4: Developing a Research Plan

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    • A research question is the fundamental question inherent in any research topic under investigation.
      • Qualitative research questions are typically open-ended, providing for a holistic view; quantitative research questions are more focused, usually on only a few variables.
      • Research questions should not be stated in a manner that assumes an answer before data have been collected.
      • Research questions should be based in the body of literature related to the topic.
      • Research questions must be able to be answered by collecting available data.
      • Research questions must be ethical and feasible to answer.
    • Hypotheses are tentative but intelligent, informed predictions about the findings of a study.
      • Three types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis, the nondirectional research hypothesis, and the directional research hypothesis.
      • The null hypothesis states that no effect, difference, or relationship will be found between variables.
      • The nondirectional research hypothesis states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found but does not specify the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship.
      • The directional research hypothesis also states that an effect, a difference, or a relationship will be found and specifically indicates the direction of the effect, the difference, or the relationship.
    • A research design is the basic blueprint for conducting an action research study.
      • Qualitative research designs are less structured and more holistic in their approach to conducting a study than are quantitative designs.
      • A case study focuses on the detailed examination of a single setting, a single subject, or a particular event.
      • In observational studies, the researcher may participate as an observer, an observer as participant, a participant as observer, or a full participant.
      • The constant comparative method is a qualitative research design for studies involving multiple data sources, where data analysis begins early in the study and is nearly completed by the end of data collection.
    • Quantitative research designs fall into four categories: descriptive designs, correlational designs, group comparisons, and single-subject designs.
      • Descriptive designs include observational research and survey research and simply attempt to describe the current status of the phenomenon of interest.
      • Correlational designs investigate the extent to which a relationship exists between two or more variables.
      • Group comparison designs involve a manipulated independent variable and a dependent variable measured across all groups.
      • Group comparison designs include causal-comparative designs (which explore the cause of an effect after the fact), preexperimental designs (which typically involve one group simply being “compared” with itself), and quasiexperimental designs (which involve two groups being compared with each other on a common dependent variable).
    • Mixed-methods research designs involve the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data.
      • In an explanatory mixed-methods design, the educator-researcher first collects quantitative data and then gathers additional qualitative data in order to help support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results; the focus is on the quantitative data. In an exploratory mixed-methods design, qualitative data are collected first, followed by quantitative data, in order to further explain any relationships discovered in the qualitative data; emphasis is placed on the qualitative data.
      • In a triangulation mixed-methods design, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at about the same time and are given equal emphasis.

Chapter 5: Collecting Data

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    • Qualitative data are narrative, appearing primarily as words.
      • Qualitative data are usually collected through observations, interviews, or journals or by obtaining existing documents or records.
      • Observations involve carefully and systematically watching and recording what you see and hear in a given setting.
      • Classroom observations may be structured, semistructured, or unstructured.
      • Unstructured or semistructured observations allow for the flexibility to attend to other events occurring in the classroom.
      • Classroom observations are usually recorded in the form of field notes, which may include observer’s comments.
      • Interviews are typically formal conversations between individuals.
      • Interviews typically follow an interview guide, which may be structured, semistructured, or open-ended.
      • Interviews can also be conducted with groups of individuals in an interview known as a focus group.
      • Interviews may also be conducted informally or via e-mail.
      • Journals may also be kept by both teachers and students in order to provide valuable insights into the workings of a classroom.
      • Existing documents and records, originally gathered for reasons other than action research, are abundantly available in schools and may be used as additional sources of information. These include classroom artifacts, such as student work.
      • It is important for teacher-researchers to establish the trustworthiness of their data. This includes the accuracy, credibility, and dependability of one’s qualitative data.
    • Quantitative data are numerical and include just about anything that can be counted, tallied, or rated.
      • Surveys are lists of statements or questions to which participants respond.
      • Questionnaires are one specific type of survey involving the administration of questions or statements in written form.
      • Items on surveys can consist of open-ended questions or closed-response rating scales.
      • A closed-response question or statement provides the respondent with a number of choices from which to select. Analysis of the resulting data involves counting the number of responses for each option.
      • Open-ended items allow for a seemingly limitless number of possible responses. Analysis of these data involves categorizing responses into similar groups and then counting them.
      • Surveys and rating scales are effective at gathering data simultaneously from numerous individuals, but they can sometimes be time-consuming to analyze.
      • Checklists are a simple form of rating scale where only a dichotomy of response options (e.g., present or not present) exists.
      • Tests and other formal instruments can be used as quantitative data, provided they are supplemented with other forms of data.
      • Validity of quantitative data has to do with the extent to which the data are what they are believed to be.
      • Reliability refers to the consistency of quantitative data and is determined statistically.
      • Remember the following: A valid test is always reliable, but a reliable test is not

Chapter 6: Analyzing Data

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    • Analyzing qualitative data is an inductive process, involving the reduction of information that has been collected by organizing it into important themes and patterns.
      • The reduction of qualitative data is typically accomplished through the development of a coding scheme, which is used to group data that provide similar types of information.
      • The process of coding narrative data often necessitates rereading your data numerous times.
      • Once all narrative data have been coded, the main features of each of the categories must be described.
      • The final step of analyzing qualitative data involves the interpretation of the data that have been coded into categories.
      • Reflection throughout the process of inductive analysis is an essential component to remaining objective and open-minded while gaining a better understanding of your data.
      • Numerous computer software programs can aid the researcher with the organization and categorization of narrative data.
    • Analysis of quantitative data is a deductive process, using descriptive or inferential statistics.
    • Descriptive statistics are relatively simple mathematical procedures used to simplify, summarize, and organize large amounts of numerical data.
      • Three categories of descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency, dispersion, and relationship.
      • Three measures of central tendency, which describe what is typical about a group, are the mean, the median, and the mode.
      • Two measures of dispersion, which indicate how much spread or diversity exists within a group of scores, are the range and the standard deviation.
      • A correlation coefficient is used to measure the degree of relationship that exists between two variables.
      • Data can also be “described” visually through the use of frequency distribution tables and such graphs as histograms, bar charts, and pie charts.
    • Inferential statistics are used to determine how likely a given statistical result is for an entire population, based on data collected from a smaller sample from that population.
      • The most common types of inferential statistical tests are the independent-measures t test, the repeated-measures t test, analysis of variance, and the chi-square test.
      • An independent-measures t test is appropriate for designs where two groups are compared on a common dependent variable.
      • A repeated-measures t test is appropriate for designs involving two measures (such as a pretest and a posttest) on the same group.
      • Analysis of variance (or ANOVA) is appropriate for designs where more than two groups are being compared on a common dependent variable.
      • Chi-square analysis is used when data exist as frequency counts within categories.
      • Inferential statistics help the researcher determine statistical significance, which indicates a true difference between groups being compared, as opposed to differences due only to chance.
      • Statistical significance is determined by comparing the obtained p-value to the preestablished a-level, usually 0.05 in educational research studies.
      • When the p-value is less than the a-level, the results are said to be statistically significant.
      • There are numerous computer software programs available to assist in the analysis of numerical data.

Chapter 7: Next Steps and Future Cycles: Developing an Action Plan

Chapter 8: Writing an Action Research Report

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    • Formally writing an action research report is important because it promotes further clarification of various aspects of the study, can provide you with valuable feedback, tends to further empower teachers to improve their practice, and can provide a great sense of accomplishment.
    • Academic writing follows certain agreed-upon conventions of style, most of which are found in various style guides, such as the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
      • Some of the most common conventions of academic writing include person and voice, tense, clarity, tentative and definitive statements, consistency, and simplicity of language.
      • It is important to remember that the title of your report is the initial screening mechanism for potential readers—it should be brief but also accurately describe the topic and study.
      • Most reports of traditional research studies tend to be written using third-person pronouns; however, it is quite appropriate to use first-person references when writing a report of the results of action research studies.
      • Use of the active voice as opposed to the passive voice is more appropriate for action research reports.
      • Generally speaking, the introductory section of a research report is written in present tense; the review of related literature, methodology, and results are written in past tense; and any recommendations and an action plan are typically written in future tense. It is always best to err on the side of caution and use tentative statements when discussing your conclusions and implications.
      • Any written report of research should be as clear and consistent as possible.
      • Do not try to impress your readers with flowery language; use simple, straightforward language in your write-up.
    • Although there is no universally agreed-upon organizational structure for formatting a research report, most action research reports contain the following sections:
      • Introduction
      • Review of Related Literature
      • Description of the Intervention or Innovation
      • Data Collection and Considerations
      • Data Analysis and Interpretation
      • Conclusions
      • Reflection and Action Plan
      • The length of a final research report often depends on the purpose the report will serve.
      • When reporting the results of qualitative data analysis, it is important to be as objective as possible, to include references to yourself where they may be warranted, to thoroughly describe all aspects of your study, to include representative samples of your data only when they will enhance your presentation of the results, and to include interesting but nonessential information in appendices at the end of your report.
      • When reporting the results of quantitative data analysis, it is important to follow various conventions for reporting numerical data as either numbers or words, to report arithmetic data in descending order, to report the total number of participants involved in the study before reporting numbers in categories, and to use tables and figures where appropriate in order to enhance your presentation of numerical results.
    • When preparing to write a final research report, teacher-researchers should establish a writing routine, try to write at the same time each day, write as if conversing with a friend, begin with an outline and organize thoughts accordingly, not worry about spelling and grammar in an initial draft of the report, and develop a realistic writing schedule.

Chapter 9: Sharing and Reflecting

Author: Craig A. Mertler

Pub Date: September 2013

Pages: 352

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